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Lecture 3.3_Mammalian Modes of Feeding

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hello again my friends you have tuned in

to lecture

3.3 entitled mammalian modes of feeding

so mammals like all organisms are going

to require energy and nutrients for

maintenance growth reproduction for

survival so maintaining a high body

temperature as we know is a key feature

of the class mammalia and so it's going

to require the regular acquisition of food

food

today I will be discussing an array of

different strategies that mammals employ

to meet their nutritional demands to

survive and reproduce beginning with

insectivity as exhibited by this pygmy

marmoset we'll discuss carnivory as

shown here by this mountain lion

herbivory and it's many different forms

demonstrated here by the Saiga Antelope

as well as frugivery exhibited here by

this adorable nocturnal kinkajou as well

as a whole variety of other strategies

so I'll also focus on the anatomical

adaptations and skull structure and jaw

musculature a quick review of dentition

as well as the digestive tracts that

support each one of these different

modes of feeding this lecture is going

to align with chapter 7 in your textbook

which is entitled modes of feeding a

quick note you are only responsible for

the first part of chapter seven which is

entitled foods and feeding on your next

assessment you will not be responsible

for the second part of chapter seven

which is entitled foraging strategies as

I'm sure you recall from module one we

only understand the life history traits

the food habits of both extant and

extinct mammals by by examining their teeth

teeth

dentition is just so important in the

science of mammology because as mammals

evolved during the Mesozoic major

changes occurred in their dentition and

jaw musculature

came differentiated to perform

specialized functions think canines and

incisors and molars

So within extant species several trophic

groups can be recognized and by this I

mean the insectivores the carnivores the

herbivores and the omnivores there are

other specialized modes of feeding as

well that have evolved from these four

basic plans on the bottom left for

example uh we have the huge tusks shown

by the mollusk eating walrus uh here the

uh this is the baleen that's shown by

the Mr CDs the filter feeding whales

here's the pycyberus or fish eating uh

dolphin skull we have necktitoris and

frugivorous uh bats the other concept

that this figure which is 7.1 in your

book does a really nice job illustrating

is it shows the increased specialization

within each of these trophic guilds

so for example if we look at the

insectivores uh here's the basic

insectivore plan

um but you can see as we move across

these species they become increasingly

more specialized at the top here is the

giant ant eater it has no teeth it's

exchanged its teeth for this incredibly

long sticky tongue the same thing is

demonstrated here in the carnivores so

here's an omnivorous raccoon here a

canid and at the top here we have the

felids they're of course the most

carnivorous of the carnivores they have

the greatest Reliance on meat and as

such we can see this reflected in their

skull structure and their dentition you

remember when I showed you that Bobcat

skull this is lower jaw here is a lever

they have this compressed Rostrum here

compared to the canaans and the ursids

and that's going to place that biting

Force much closer to the fulcrum it's

going to give them a much more powerful

bite so increased specialization for

carnivory mammals that consume insects

and other small arthropods uh like a

monarch butterflies here you know

arachnids centipedes needs isopods as

well as segmented and round worms are

all referred to as

insectivorous mammals meaning insect

eating you will recall from module one

that the fossil morphology and dentition

from the late Triassic early Jurassic

mammals like the 160 million year old

Jeremiah indicate that the insectivorous

feeding Niche represents the Primitive

or basal condition of euthyrian mammals

today insectivity is exploited by

members from nine mammalian orders

including the spiny echidnas and the

duck-billed platypus here on the top

left you will recall that's the order

mono tremata also remember that mammals

that worms are lumped in with the insectivores

insectivores

top middle here are the marsupial moles

hopefully you remember them as well

clearly insectivorous as we snarf down

this giant centipede the order is

notoricta morphia

the eulopotifula that includes the

Hedgehogs shrews moles and desmonds this

is a shrew here on the top right

there are lots of insectivorous bats

bats are the order chiroptera in the

middle here this is that giant ant eater

I showed you the skull on the last Slide

the order is singulada

here are the armadillos the order pelosa

and we are covering both of these orders

the singulata and the pelosa in our next

lecture on the bottom left here we have

a Pangolin you can see him ripping up

the log they're trying to get at insects

pangolins are in the order fola DotA

everybody remembers the Earth Pig uh our

favorite the aardvark here which of

course is the order of tubule edentada

and then surprisingly

um there is an insectivorous carnivore

this is The aard Wolf on the bottom

right which is another termite

specialist you can see that long sticky

tongue on the aard wolf with all of

those little uh papillae protrusions the

dentition of insectivorous mammals like

shrews moles hedgehogs here on the

bottom left

insectivorous bats on the bottom right

insectivore dentition is characterized

by numerous sharp teeth with very sharp

cones as exhibited here by the Hedgehog

as well as

blade-like teeth as shown here by the

insectivorous bat

these sharp blade-like teeth are for

piercing and shearing and then

ultimately crunching up the tough kindness

kindness

exoskeletons that surround insects and

other arthropods we also observe in

insectivores that the lower incisors

here are slightly procumbent meaning

they're going to point forward and

upward just a bit in order to grasp that

insect prey that's trying to fly or hop

away very quickly as insectivorous

mammals consume minimal amounts of

fibrous vegetation they don't eat a lot

of plants containing really difficult to

digest cellulose which we'll talk about

when we talk about the herbivores the

insectivores don't have to have any

prolonged fermentation and therefore

their digestive tracts are relatively

short and simple so insectivores and

chiropterans the bats they're going to

lack a cecum recall the cecum is this

pouch that's at the junction of the

small and the large intestines we're

going to see zika in these other trophic

guilds insectivores lack a cecum so this

is figure 7.2 in your textbook which

I'll be returning to multiple times

throughout this lecture so make sure you

know this figure here with the

representative digestive tracts it's a

really good one to know for your next

assessment wink wink so let's begin our

survey with the aerial

insectivores given that the most

abundant Foods on planet Earth are

plants and insects it's not surprising

that the most abundant mammals are

rodents which are most often herbivorous

and our Focus now the bats which the

majority of are insectivorous

in fact 70 percent of the micro

chiropterans which excludes the mega

chiroptera which are the large fruit

bats or the flying foxes

so 70 of the micro chiropterans are insectivorous

insectivorous

chiropterans are going to occupy

ecological niches and almost all

habitats of the world their diversity of

diets is simply unparalleled among

extant mammals as we'll see in this

lecture uh bats can also feed on fruit

blood fish frogs Birds you name it and

there is a species of bat that eats it

however all bats residing north of 38

degrees latitude which is in like

Southern Illinois all bats from Southern

Illinois North as well as all bats from

40 degrees latitude South which is like

southern Chile and Argentina so bats in

these uh temperate regions they are all

insectivorous okay so the fruit Giver is

bats they're going to be in warmer

tropical weather we're going to cover

bats in module six but for now recognize

that bats have very high metabolic rates

and astoundingly may consume 50 of their

body mass in insects each night imagine

consuming 50 of your body mass in food

stuff daily

insectivorous bats are voracious eaters

Mexican free-tailed bats in Central

Texas totaling some 20 million

individuals may consume up to a quarter

of a million pounds of insects nightly

and fly as high as 10 000 feet or three

thousand meters in search of their prey

so this picture I purposely had to put

in it really brings back some memories

this is the Congress Avenue Bridge

spanning ladybird Lake in downtown

Austin Texas so during the summer this

bridge is home to over 1.5 million

Mexican free-tailed bats so I was

actually born in Austin and this bridge

this is where I did my very first

Wildlife field work way back in 1995.

so as a freshman biology student at the

University of Texas I was trying to

assess temperature and humidity

differences between the channels under

the bridge where the bats Roost and

compare those to ambient temperatures

trying to understand

why uh batch select the sites that they

do for roosting so I had to Wade through

like knee-deep guano uh really ripe uh

ammonia Rich bat droppings uh to get up

under uh the edges of the bridge and

record measurements so but I have to say

if you ever visit Austin between like

late March and early fall it is quite a

spectacle to sit out with the crowds

right at Sunset and just watch these

bats stream out into the Sky by the tens

of thousands it's awesome so did you

know that you can check out Urban

Mexican free-tailed bats living right

here in Phoenix so every year between

May and October approximately 10 to 20

000 bats flock to Phoenix on their

migration uh to Mexico

during the day they're going to gather

within a cave to rest which is actually

a flood control tunnel so to get to the

tunnel you're going to walk North West

from 40th Street and Camelback on the

northernmost end of the Arizona Canal

Trail so if you just Google

um a bat cave on Google Maps it'll show

you the location and the parking for the

bat cave for now I want you to check out

this very short video that's embedded in

canvas it's produced by Arizona Game and

Fish and it will show you uh the bat

cave so check it out and uh maybe later

this spring go and check out our Urban

Mexican free-tailed bats as I previously

mentioned there are many terrestrial

insectivores but for now I really want

to hone in on three really unique

species of shrew and then the hispanolin

selenidon as these four species of

mammal produce venomous saliva

in fact the toxin of the North American

Northern short-tailed shrew which is

pictured here at left was purified and

characterized as a lethal mammalian

Venom capable of breaking down proteins

like the enzyme protease

the toxin is administered to the shrew's

prey through a concave medial surface in

the first lower incisors so extracts of

this toxin administered to mice affected

the nervous respiratory and Vascular

systems causing irregular respiration

paralysis convulsions followed by death

so this is a very toxic venom that is in

the saliva of the northern short-tailed shrew

shrew

so the Shrew is going to bite its prey

which the Venom immobilizes it and then

it's going to cash its prey underground

in a comatose state to then feed on it

when it needs it so there is a special

uh case study blurp in your book about

the ability of the water shrew to smell

while hunting under water it's blowing

air out of its nose the little section

is called underwater sniffing but for

now I would love for you to take the one

minute and 42 seconds here and check out

David Attenborough and this amazing

footage of a water shrew hunting

underwater it's after aquatic dragonfly

it's mammals that are going to

specialize on Colonial ants and termites

so these ant eaters include armadillos

the silky ant eater which is pictured

here on the left the giant ant eater and

again we'll be covering the ant eaters

and the armadillos in our next lecture

3.4 as well as the Pangolin the aardvark

and you remember the numbat from our

lecture on marsupials so a reduction in

amongophagus insectivores

their dentition is going to depart from

the general insectivorous mold we're

going to have peg-like teeth like we see

in the armadillos or no teeth at all

like in the echidnas the anteaters and

the pangolins and before we move on

notice those really Stout strong claws

for digging and breaking open uh those

ant mounds perhaps most impressive about

the mere mccophagus insectivores is

there long and extendable

worm-like tongues so the tongue of the

giant ant eater can be three times the

length of its skull it's actually

way down here in the sternum so the

sternum right that connects the rib cage

um you can see the tongue is running all

the way down here right so that's how it

can be three times longer than the skull

further the giant ant eater has got

these greatly enlarged salivary glands

situated in the neck that are going to

produce this viscous sticky secretion

that coats the tongue and allows it to

grab hold of the ants and the termites

it's also very important because it

begins to break down the chitin the

chitin is that sugar that long carbon

chain that's going to make up the

arthropod exoskeleton all in all these

tongues are highly maneuverable and very

sticky to effectively reach down into

the inner recesses of ant and Termite

nests long extendable tongues aren't the

only way to reach deep into the recesses

where insects like to hide the Third

third finger

on the eye eye from Madagascar and the

fourth finger here on the striped possum

or the triok from austral Asia both of

these species these fingers are uniquely

adapted as probes right to get at

insects from crevices within trees so

using this Keen sense of hearing the eye

can detect larval insects hidden under

the bark of trees it's then going to

expose them by gnawing off the outer

layer of bark with its incisors and then

it's going to insert that third finger

in to crush and extract that larva so

really cool adaptations for these and

divorce carnivorous mammals feed

primarily on other animals members of

this group comprise the flesh-eating

members of the order

Carnivora including the felids

the hyenas

the canaans

the mostellids that's the weasel family

like you see right here uh the mongoose

as well as the fossa uh from Madagascar

and then let us not forget our

carnivorous dazzy urid marsupials uh of

course the thylacine is extinct but it

was definitely carnivorous the largest

carnivorous marsupial is the Tasmanian

devil you remember that and then the

carnivorous tiger coal here we learned

about those guys in module two

important to mention now however the

order Carnivora

okay is actually represented by a

diverse array of feeding types and

dental morphologies ranging from

obligatory meat eaters with large

carnassial teeth uh like the cats and

the hyenas to more omnivorous species uh

like the grizzly bear all the way to you

know giant pandas which are full

liberists they're herbivorous uh animals

that specialize on the shoots of bamboo

they have crushing molars and they're

not eating any meat at all so a wide

variety of feeding strategies in the

order carnivore returning to figure 7.2

animal material eating meat is mostly

protein and protein is converted to

energy much more efficiently much easier

than plant material is so like the

insectivores the carnivore alimentary

canal is going to be relatively short

and simple and the cecum if they have

one is quite small most carnivores are

predators that are typified by strong

skulls with powerful jaws and sharp

canines that have evolved to kill their prey

prey

so that said the different apex

predators have different killing

strategies this is actually something

that I thought quite a bit about as a

young man in the early 2000s I spent

three years putting mortality sensing

radio callers on neonatal elk that is to

say newborn calf elk and I was trying to

determine predation rates on these

calves from the newly recolonizing gray

wolves as well as Grizzly and black

bears mountain lions and coyotes one of

the things that I quickly learned is

that these different apex predators have

very different strategies for killing

the calves and then they also have

different consumption patterns they're

going to eat different things so my

teams and I got very good at reading a

mortality site and knee crop scene the

remains of cafel to determine uh who

done it I'm going to return to This

research and present it to you as a case

study in module seven but for now I want

you to recognize that the felids

particularly the large cats they're

typically going to kill their prey with

a single penetrating bite and it's often

at the base of the skull like you see

this cheetah here uh biting this

Thompson's because gazelle and the

canine is going to go into the vertebral

column and it's going to sever or Pierce

that spinal cord the other place that

the large cats will often bite is in the

throat so they'll crush the trachea or

the windpipe and suffocate their prey

whereas the hyenas the African wild dogs

they're going to kill with several

shallower bites it was the same way in

Montana so the packs of wolves or

coyotes they would just root those elk

calves up and we would find scattered

bits and pieces of elk calf all over the

place because you know different pack

mates would rip off a hunk of meat and

then move away to feed

so once the prey is subdued carnivores

rely on Long strong pointed teeth to

tear and Shear the flesh into hunks

which are then swallowed really without

being finely divided masticated uh in

the mouth most carnivores do have a pair

of carnassial teeth which we've

discussed that provide that shearing

mechanism when the mouth is closed so as

you would predict based on their diets

the carnassials are most highly

developed in the felids and the canaans

and least developed in the more

omnivorous carnivores like the ursids

the Bears and the raccoons because they

have large crushing molars in addition

to their carnacials dogs are going to be

able to crush bones whereas cats cannot

so in Montana we learned that the

mountain lions are very picky about what

they eat they will eat the elk calves

liver the kidneys maybe some heart maybe

a bit of muscle meat but they're going

to reject the rumen and the intestines

instead they're just going to go move

move on and kill again this is figure

7.8 in your textbook it's a comparison

of the jaw mechanics of a carnivore on

the left a hyena and an herbivore a Lego

more of a hair on the right so what I

want you to note is the carnivore has

this very large temporalis muscle and a

moderately sized masseter muscle which

attaches to the coronoid process in the

jaw so what this large musculature is

going to do is it's going to allow that

carnivore to have an up and down

powerful chomping motion meanwhile the

herbivore has a decent sized masseter

muscle but a very small temporalis

muscle so the herbivore each lower jaw

is going to move move side to side as it bites

bites

and then down in the lower part of the

figure we have the occlusal surfaces of

teeth on the left we have the

carnassials of a carnivore for shearing

meat in the middle we have the rolling

and crushing of brittle Foods by an omnivores

omnivores

bunodont teeth here and then we have

hexadant teeth on the far right for

shredding and grinding tough fibrous

material these are like the cheek teeth

of an ungulate like a horse this is

astounding footage of a Jaguar killing a

massive Cayman it's just amazing so it

puts the stalk on the came in and then

it jumps and it kills with a single

powerful bite to the base of the skull

and it's crazy because if you watch it

closely you can see the moment that the

spinal cord is severed because the

crocodilian is just like thrashing about

and then it just goes limp right so

really amazing footage uh spend the two

minutes and uh check out this amazing

predation scene next we're going to take

a quick survey of the terrestrial

carnivores and we'll start with the

family the mustela day so this is the

weasel family it's going to include

species like the Wolverine the pine

Martin and the Fisher this is a

long-tailed weasel here and it's killed

a vole it does this by rapidly biting at

the base of the skull or just by ripping

out the jug regular so it's kind of

similar to the way felids kill

the long-tailed weasel is going to

consume first the brain of the vole and

then its heart its lungs and then

ultimately the entire body

bones fur and all the felids like this

snow leopard leaping after this mountain

goat and her calf are highly adapted for

capturing and consuming vertebrate prey

there are senses of smell and hearing

are quite acute their eyes are larger

than in most vertebrates and they face

forward providing binocular vision a

depth perception which is going to allow

them to locate their prey and capture it

they also have long retractable claws

that serve as effective meat hooks for

capturing slashing and immobilizing

their Gray

one of the things we would always look

for on the elk calf mortality scenes is

if we had tracks wolf tracks the Canaan

tracks as well as the Bear Tracks are

going to show claws whereas mountain

lion tracks very very rarely show claws

as they are retractable the canaans like

these African wild dogs are

opportunistic Hunters they're going to

rely on high intelligence social

organization and superb behavioral adaptability

adaptability

as discussed when we covered the

benefits of living in groups uh large

canaans like gray wolves and these

African wild dogs they're going to hunt

in packs sometimes of up to 30 members

and that's going to allow them to seek

out and kill prey considerably larger

and potentially more dangerous as

discussed although most chiropterans are

going to feed on insects taken on the

wing there are certain species of

carnivorous bats that are quite

specialized for feeding on small

vertebrates such as rodents Birds frogs

lizards small fish and even other bats

so the frog eating bats obviously shown

here consumes small vertebrates such as

frogs and lizards and is able to locate

and distinguish between different

species of frogs by listening for and

analyzing their unique calls this is

really important because it's going to

allow for these carnivorous frog-eating

bats to discriminate between poisonous

and palatable frog species which brings

us to the sand glenivorous vampire bats

that is to say the blood-feeding bats

there are three species that consume

blood all are confined to the new world

from Mexico down to Northern Argentina

the common vampire bat which is pictured

here is going to pray exclusively on

other mammals whereas the other two

species The White Winged and hairy

legged vampire bats prefer avian prey

when found near human settlements these

bats these common vampire bats will

ingest blood from cattle horses mules

pigs sheep goats clearly and even humans

the skull of the vampire bat is modified

accordingly it has these blade-like

upper incisors and canines and then it

has a long and highly vascularized

stomach shown here which is actually

going to serve to store large amounts of

blood and absorb water from the blood

concentrating it here before passing

that concentrated blood into the small

intestine so that's different

um than a stomach that's going to digest

protein uh with the enzyme protease as

occurs in most mammals so predators that

eat fish are called pycivorous meaning

fish eating at least three species of

bats are known to capture and eat fish

the greater bulldog bat which is the

species pictured here in this beautiful

shot there's the fish eating bat which

is in the genus myotis and the large

footed bat in the same genus so Bulldog

bats are going to employ echo location

to detect ripples in the water caused by

the fish swimming near the water's

surface they skim low dragging their

feet along the surface of the water with

their limbs and hook like claws rotated

forward which act as a gaff a fishing

spear to Gaff their prey so Fish can be

taken that are up to eight centimeters

and length which is about three inches

and these Bulldog greater bulldog bats

May capture 30 to 40 of these fish per

night next we'll very quickly survey The

Aquatic carnivores and we'll start with

a very special case of carnivory the

Baleen whales named because of this

structure you're right here this feeding

apparatus the long wispy hair like

structure this is a baleen so the Baleen

whales collectively are known as the

mysticides and they are going to use

their balloons to strain small

microscopic organisms out of the water

things like Krill collectively all of

these microorganisms are are deemed

Plankton Plankton is just Greek for to

wander but the baleen is situated here

at the front of the mouth and it is

going to serve as a sieve to grab hold

of those Plankton we're going to cover

the cetaceans in much greater detail in

module seven but before moving on it's

important to note that the mysticides

are not just eating Plankton so this is

some pretty astounding footage of

humpback whales that are hunting

cooperatively so one large female will

get down below her pod mates and she's

going to blow these bubble Nets which

are going to create these walls of

Bubbles and ensnare entire schools of

herrings concentrating them in one spot

which is going to allow for her pod

mates then uh to snarf up huge mouthfuls

of Herring so check this out embedded in

canvas from BBC Earth the toothed whales

porpoises and dolphins are collectively

known as the odonto CDs the toothed

whales and they are fish and Squid

Specialists so they're paciferous they

have numerous small sharp simple teeth

remember they have homo daunt dentition

your dolphins have homodontentition and

it's to optimize prey capture so the

mouth of a porpoise or a dolphin

essentially forms a fish trap similar to

that used by other fish eating

vertebrates such as Gars which is that

type of fish with the long snouts and

um the teeth very similar teeth

crocodiles as well as mergansers if

you've ever seen mergansers which is a

type of diving a waterfowl with a

serrated Bill the Adaptive value of this

morphology is quite clear fish are

active and slippery and they must be

trapped and swallowed quickly to prevent

their escape as in the odontoceties the

jaws and Teeth of the pinnipens which

are the seals and sea lions are adapted

for grasping prey

ripping it up so that they can swallow

The Fish Hole or in large chunks as seen

here by this sea lion swallowing a large

hunk of salmon herbivorous mammals like

this cape buffalo

consume green plants and thus they

constitute the base of the consumer food

web they are the primary consumers the

herbivores so plant food is going to be

far more abundant than animal food but

it's energy content is much much lower

gaining access to the Protein that's

locked within the leaves and stems is

quite difficult due to the tough fibrous

cell walls found in plants we can divide

the herbivores up into two main groups

number one the browsers and the grazers

such as the hoofed mammals like the

Parisa dactyla the odd toad ungulates

like the three-toed Rhino here on the

top left and the set audio Dacula which

are the even-toed ungulates like this

four-toed Caribou here on the top right

although they only walk on two toes uh

number two uh the Nars so the rodentia

like these capybara here on the bottom

left and the Lego morpha like the

cottontail rabbit it is worth noting

though that there are other important

herbivores like kangaroos and wallabies

and wombats we know that langers sloths

elephants and hyraxes as well as aquatic

grazers like the manatees and dugong

herbivores feed on a great diversity of

foods including grasses leaves fruit

seeds nectar pollen and even the sap and

the resins and the gums of plants and

trees I'm going to quickly survey

examples of each but first on the

Serengeti Plains of East Africa we see

dense migrating herds of ungulates that

are going to influence plant Community

succession and they're going to finally

partition the available

resources this specialization is going

to minimize competition and it's going

to allow for this incredible diversity

of sympatric herbivores herbivores

living in the same community

these herbivores are going to respond to

the growth of grasses in a predictable

sequence so first the parisodactyls such

as the plane's zebra here are going to

enter long grass communities on the

Plains and consume many of those longer

stem grasses next are going to come the

incredibly massive herds of wildebeest

they're going to trample and graze those

grasses way down uh to short Heights

the last invasion of ungulates is that

of the Thompson's gazelles which feed on

Short Grass during the dry season in

addition to the different spatial and

temporal division of resources these

ungulates sort out available food

according to different parts of plants

so giraffes pictured here are obviously

feeding on leaves from the tops of the

trees that's their Niche zebras consume

mostly stems and sheaths of grass they

hardly eat any leaves the wildebeests

are also going to eat great numbers of

sheaths but also leaves and gazelles eat

grass sheaths and herbs not consumed by

these other two species in general

herbivores are typified by by skulls in

which the canines are reduced or

completely absent as well as broad

molars that are adapted for crushing

shredding and grinding fibrous plant

tissue as you recall the rodents are

characterized by a single pair of

ever-growing chisel-like incisors on

both the upper and the lower Jaws the

Lego morphs have an additional secondary

pair of upper incisors right here that

are located immediately behind the first

pair because those canine teeth are

absent there's this wide Gap here called

the diastoma that occurs between the

incisors and the cheek tea again

herbivores have a large masseter muscle

connected to their lower jaw and a very

small temporalis muscle so this large

masseter muscle is going to allow that

lower jaw to move side to side to grind

up those fibrous plants so mammals do

not produce cellulose splitting enzymes

so they have to rely on

microorganisms residing in their

alimentary canals these microorganisms

are the ones that are going to break

down and metabolize the cellulose of

plants and then release fatty acids and

sugars that can be absorbed by their

herbivorous mammalian hosts

rodents and legomorphs like this

Jackrabbit are called

non-ruminant herbivores so they become

inoculated with the appropriate

anaerobic protozoans and bacteria by

eating uh maternal feces in a process

called coprophagy which we'll come to

here in just a second

ungulates have of all two different

systems for breaking down cellulose four

gut fermentation also called rumination

these are the ruminant herbivores it's

named for this structure here the rumen

which is this massive chamber that's

just teeming with microorganisms

and then the second strategy is called

hindgut fermentation uh like we see here

in the rabbits in which case there is no

rumen so young ungulates commonly

consume soil to acquire their

microorganisms let's begin with those

herbivores uh that have a rumen so they

do for gut fermentation meaning the

fermentation of the plant material by

microbes occurs at the beginning of the

alimentary canal in the four gut

rumination or foregut fermentation is

typified by the set artiodactyls the

even-toed ungulates such as camels

giraffes hippopotamuses pronghorn

antelope the servants which are your

deer the bovids your cows and bison and

as well as kangaroos koalas sloths

lemurs probiscus monkeys and calabus

monkeys including this species here the

mantled guerriza which is a type of

calabus monkey and a very efficient

foregut fermenter four gut fermenters

possess a complex and

multi-chambered stomach with cellulose digesting

digesting

microorganisms so after food is procured

by cropping or grazing it passes down

the esophagus and into the first and

largest chamber in the network the rumen

the rumen of course is the namesake for

the ruminant herbivores within the rumen

the food is going to be moistened and

needed and thereby it's going to to

thoroughly mix that plant material with

the symbiotic

microorganisms living in the rumen and

they're going to ferment that food large

particles of the food is going to float

to the top of the rumen fluid and then

it's going to pass into this second

chamber here called the reticulum this

is a blind end chamber meaning there's

no exit down here and it's characterized

by the honeycomb partitioning in its

walls so the reticulum is where a

softened Mass called the cud

the cud is formed fermentation is going

to occur in both the rumen as well as

the honeycombed reticulum and both

absorb the main products of fermentation

which are short chained fatty acids when

the ruminant herbivore like the deer or

the bighorn sheep is at rest the

softened Mass within the reticulum is

going to be regurgitated it's going to

go back up the esophagus and then it's

going to allow that animal to chew its

cud it's going to ruminate that mass

which is going to further break it down

by that potent enzyme salivary amylase

the food this time the cud is then

swallowed a second time as indicated by

this black line here and it's going to

end up in the third chamber of the

network the omasum the omasum has

muscular walls and it's going to need

that bolus even further the fourth and

final chamber we're going to go go

through here and end up in the [ __ ] Mason

this is the true stomach uh in the

ruminant herbivores this is where

digestive enzymes are going to kill any

of the escaping microorganisms and

protein digestion is completed with the

enzyme protease

digested material is then going to move

into the small intestine we remember the

first section of the small intestine

it's called the duodenum within the

small intestine

products of microbial digestion

are absorbed and additional fermentation

and absorption can occur in the cecum

Downstream which is at the junction of

the small and the large intestine here

is a great close-up of a massive Cape

buffalo which is chewing its cud with

that side to side jaw motion

kind gut fermentation has just one

gastric chamber there's no rumen with

the hind gut fermenters this is

characterized by horses zebras tapiers

rhinoceroses howler monkeys elephants

Lego morphs hyraxes rodents as well as

some arboreal marsupials

hindgut fermenters

masticate food as they eat they're going

to chew up their food initiating

digestion with salivary enzymes like

salivary amylase

digestion continues by enzymatic

activity in the stomach okay so we're

going to go down the esophagus and

directly in to the simple stomach and

then food is going to move into this

long small intestine as new food is

eaten so unlike the ruminant set

artiodactyls hind gut fermenters they're

not going to regurgitate their food

they're not going to chew their cud so

horses and elephants do not have a rumen

and a reticulum and they do not

regurgitate their food and chew their

cut of course nutrients are absorbed in

the small intestine and then finely

ground particles of food are going to

pass from the small intestine first into

the cecum and larger food particles are

going to move right past the cecum and

into the large intestine and are

eventually passed as feces so this is

important among the hind gut fermenters

the colon the large intestine is the

principal fermentation chamber for

larger species like elephants as well as Horses

Horses

while the cecum is going to be the

primary fermentation chamber for smaller

species like your rodents and your Lego

morphs but again hind gut fermentation

is meaning that the fermentation is

occurring at the end of the alimentary

canal instead of at the four at the

beginning as in foregut fermentation so

foregut versus hindgut fermentation the

two types of fermentation processes that

take place in herbivores have clear

advantages as well as disadvantages for

gut fermentation tends to be very

efficient because

microorganisms begin to break down the

plant material before it reaches the

small intestine where absorption occurs

additionally in four gut fermenters in ruminance

ruminance

the microorganisms from the rumen are

themselves broken down by acids in the

true stomach the

abomasum the resulting material which

then contains the carbohydrates and the

proteins synthesized by those

microorganisms as well as the products

of fermentation are going to move into

the intestines and the colon

another benefit of four gut fermentation

is the microorganisms in the rumen are

going to detoxify many of those harmful

alkaloids in the plants that fog up

fermenters consume in contrast food

passes rapidly into the small intestine

in the hindgut fermenters and is then

mixed with the microorganisms Downstream

in the cecum these animals do not digest

the microorganisms themselves that are

present in the cecum and thus they can't

exploit this potential source of

nutrients in addition hindgut fermenters

must absorb the toxic plant chemicals

into the bloodstream and then transport

those toxins to the liver for

detoxification or sequestration

efficiency May indeed be the trademark

of four gut fermenters of the ruminants

however the hind gut fermenters are able

to process material much more rapidly so

for example food moves through the gut

of a horse and only about 30 to 45 hours

whereas it may take a cow a ruminant 70 to 100 hours to process its food

to 100 hours to process its food Pine gut fermenters efficiently digest

Pine gut fermenters efficiently digest food high in protein because large

food high in protein because large volumes of food can be passed through

volumes of food can be passed through them quite rapidly furthermore High gut

them quite rapidly furthermore High gut fermentation is effective when forage is

fermentation is effective when forage is dominated by indigestible materials such

dominated by indigestible materials such as silica and resins because again those

as silica and resins because again those compounds are going to move quickly

compounds are going to move quickly through their alimentary canals by

through their alimentary canals by bypassing the cecum going right into the

bypassing the cecum going right into the large intestine and then excreted in

large intestine and then excreted in some due to their lowered efficiency

some due to their lowered efficiency hind gut fermenters must eat large

hind gut fermenters must eat large volumes of food in a short amount of

volumes of food in a short amount of time the foregut system is relatively

time the foregut system is relatively slow because food can't pass out of the

slow because food can't pass out of the rumen until it has been ground up into

rumen until it has been ground up into very fine particles the digestive

very fine particles the digestive physiology of herbivores is going to

physiology of herbivores is going to influence both their ecology and their

influence both their ecology and their distribution in a myriad of ways so

distribution in a myriad of ways so ruminants like we see here on the left

ruminants like we see here on the left they're going to benefit most from foods

they're going to benefit most from foods that require

that require optimal efficiency in the digestive

optimal efficiency in the digestive system remember ruminants with their

system remember ruminants with their multi-chambered stomach are far better

multi-chambered stomach are far better at extracting nutrients from plants

at extracting nutrients from plants whereas the best forage for hind gut

whereas the best forage for hind gut fermenters as seen here on the right is

fermenters as seen here on the right is the forage which facilitates speed of

the forage which facilitates speed of digestion so each strategy has its

digestion so each strategy has its advantages for survival in particular

advantages for survival in particular ecological niches

ecological niches for environments where food is limited

for environments where food is limited but of relatively high quality like the

but of relatively high quality like the Arctic tundra this is going to favor

Arctic tundra this is going to favor ruminants such as the musk ox and

ruminants such as the musk ox and Caribou so they're going to have an

Caribou so they're going to have an advantage because they can efficiently

advantage because they can efficiently extract so many nutrients from that

extract so many nutrients from that limited amount of forage but when food

limited amount of forage but when food is of low quality with high fiber

is of low quality with high fiber content like these dried out grasses

content like these dried out grasses here but the food is not limited at all

here but the food is not limited at all in terms of quantity a premium is then

in terms of quantity a premium is then placed on those species that have the

placed on those species that have the ability to process large amounts of food

ability to process large amounts of food quickly so

quickly so parisodactyls can survive live in

parisodactyls can survive live in regions typified by seasonal drought and

regions typified by seasonal drought and poor quality food places where ruminants

poor quality food places where ruminants are not going to be able to process

are not going to be able to process foods fast enough to survive so in short

foods fast enough to survive so in short ruminants have the advantage when there

ruminants have the advantage when there is limited high quality forage because

is limited high quality forage because they have efficient foregut fermentation

they have efficient foregut fermentation kind gut fermenters like the rhinoceros

kind gut fermenters like the rhinoceros here have the advantage when there is

here have the advantage when there is abundant low quality forage because they

abundant low quality forage because they can process so much food so quickly one

can process so much food so quickly one of the most successful groups of

of the most successful groups of herbivores are the gnawing mammals

herbivores are the gnawing mammals namely the rodents and the Lego morphs

namely the rodents and the Lego morphs like the ungulates rodents and Lego

like the ungulates rodents and Lego morphs cannot produce the enzyme

morphs cannot produce the enzyme cellulase so they are reliant upon

cellulase so they are reliant upon fermentation of fibrous forage with the

fermentation of fibrous forage with the aid of bacteria and protozoa they have

aid of bacteria and protozoa they have to have those microorganisms in their

to have those microorganisms in their guts as with the parisodactyls rodents

guts as with the parisodactyls rodents and legomorphs do not ruminate they

and legomorphs do not ruminate they don't have a rumen they don't chew their

don't have a rumen they don't chew their cud

cud hind gut fermentation in the rodents of

hind gut fermentation in the rodents of Lego morphs is going to occur primarily

Lego morphs is going to occur primarily in the cecum as well as the colon within

in the cecum as well as the colon within the diverse order rodentia variation in

the diverse order rodentia variation in the morphology of digestive systems is

the morphology of digestive systems is correlated with diet so for example

correlated with diet so for example squirrels Chipmunks and marmots they

squirrels Chipmunks and marmots they feed on a wide variety of seeds nuts

feed on a wide variety of seeds nuts fruits and herbs and therefore they have

fruits and herbs and therefore they have a much simpler digestive system than

a much simpler digestive system than grass eating voles and Lemmings as

grass eating voles and Lemmings as pictured here do hamsters pocket gophers

pictured here do hamsters pocket gophers pocket mice and squirrels have cheek

pocket mice and squirrels have cheek pouches that open near the angle of the

pouches that open near the angle of the mouth so cheek pouches are well adapted

mouth so cheek pouches are well adapted for carrying food as an example cited in

for carrying food as an example cited in your book Allen in 1938 reported 32

your book Allen in 1938 reported 32 beechnuts found in the cheek pouches of

beechnuts found in the cheek pouches of an Eastern chipmunk which is the species

an Eastern chipmunk which is the species you see here We Now understand that the

you see here We Now understand that the digestion of cellulose in hind gut

digestion of cellulose in hind gut fermenters species with no rumen like

fermenters species with no rumen like the rodents and the Lego morphs occurs

the rodents and the Lego morphs occurs in the cecum because there is no

in the cecum because there is no regurgitation and because these mammals

regurgitation and because these mammals are going to pass their forage through

are going to pass their forage through their alimentary canals so quickly these

their alimentary canals so quickly these mammals can't really process fiber when

mammals can't really process fiber when they first ingest plants their microbial

they first ingest plants their microbial communities simply haven't been

communities simply haven't been established yet as a result we observe

established yet as a result we observe coprophagy or the feeding on feces it's

coprophagy or the feeding on feces it's evolved in the rabbits and the hairs the

evolved in the rabbits and the hairs the Lego morphs rodents shrews and some

Lego morphs rodents shrews and some marsupials remember the cecum is located

marsupials remember the cecum is located Downstream of the small intestine the

Downstream of the small intestine the principal organ of absorption so uh all

principal organ of absorption so uh all those minerals and vitamins like

those minerals and vitamins like essential B vitamins that are produced

essential B vitamins that are produced by the fermentation in the cecum those

by the fermentation in the cecum those are otherwise uh lost uh to the Lego

are otherwise uh lost uh to the Lego morbs they're excreted here

morbs they're excreted here so what that means is the Lego morphs

so what that means is the Lego morphs are going to consume some of their own

are going to consume some of their own feces to allow it to pass through the

feces to allow it to pass through the gut a second time to optimize the uptake

gut a second time to optimize the uptake of essential vitamins and minerals and

of essential vitamins and minerals and to enhance the assimilation of energy

to enhance the assimilation of energy the Lego morphs are going to produce two

the Lego morphs are going to produce two types of feces the first are moist

types of feces the first are moist mucous coated black sequel pellets

mucous coated black sequel pellets excreted and promptly eaten by the

excreted and promptly eaten by the rabbit directly from its own anus as

rabbit directly from its own anus as shown in the diagram

shown in the diagram these pellets these sequel pellets are

these pellets these sequel pellets are stored in the stomach and then they're

stored in the stomach and then they're mixed with the new food

mixed with the new food and they're going to form this

and they're going to form this alimentary Mass the second type of feces

alimentary Mass the second type of feces are hard round feces that are passed

are hard round feces that are passed normally

normally so the frequency of coprophagy and

so the frequency of coprophagy and rabbits they're going to do this usually

rabbits they're going to do this usually twice daily and we see that when we

twice daily and we see that when we prevent coprophagy in laboratory rats it

prevent coprophagy in laboratory rats it resulted in a 15 to 25 reduction in

resulted in a 15 to 25 reduction in growth

growth um so acquiring those nutrients produced

um so acquiring those nutrients produced in the cecum by consuming uh their own

in the cecum by consuming uh their own feces is really important for the growth

feces is really important for the growth and survival of these organisms all

and survival of these organisms all right next we're going to do a quick

right next we're going to do a quick survey of some of the specializations

survey of some of the specializations that we see in herbivores and we'll

that we see in herbivores and we'll start with granivary so herbivorous

start with granivary so herbivorous mammals that consume primarily fruits

mammals that consume primarily fruits nuts and seeds are referred to as

nuts and seeds are referred to as granivorous meaning seed eating so

granivorous meaning seed eating so they're typically equipped with large

they're typically equipped with large external fur lined cheek pouches a keen

external fur lined cheek pouches a keen sense of smell as in the hetero Maya

sense of smell as in the hetero Maya rodents the kangaroo rats The Kangaroo

rodents the kangaroo rats The Kangaroo Mice and the pocket mice they're going

Mice and the pocket mice they're going to represent really the most specialized

to represent really the most specialized seed eaters so the diversity and the

seed eaters so the diversity and the availability of seeds in desert

availability of seeds in desert ecosystems like our own Sonoran Desert

ecosystems like our own Sonoran Desert is really key to the evolutionary

is really key to the evolutionary success of these

success of these heteromyads the kangaroo rats and mice

heteromyads the kangaroo rats and mice in terms of the biomass of seeds they

in terms of the biomass of seeds they harvest heteromyans are really rivaled

harvest heteromyans are really rivaled only by ants in terms of being the most

only by ants in terms of being the most important granivores inhabiting North

important granivores inhabiting North American deserts so rodents are reported

American deserts so rodents are reported to use over 75 percent of all seeds

to use over 75 percent of all seeds produced at certain Mojave and

produced at certain Mojave and Chihuahuan Desert sites as a result of

Chihuahuan Desert sites as a result of all those abundant seed resources as

all those abundant seed resources as well as competition with those ants and

well as competition with those ants and birds and other rodents the heteromyots

birds and other rodents the heteromyots those kangaroo rats and mice they've

those kangaroo rats and mice they've evolved fascinating morphological and

evolved fascinating morphological and behavioral adaptations to optimize their

behavioral adaptations to optimize their foraging success so they employ large

foraging success so they employ large cheek pouches to collect as many seeds

cheek pouches to collect as many seeds as possible in single foraging bouts and

as possible in single foraging bouts and then all of these heteromyots are going

then all of these heteromyots are going to cash their seeds they're going to

to cash their seeds they're going to collect large quantities of seeds and

collect large quantities of seeds and they're going to store them in larders

they're going to store them in larders within their bows or scatter and hoard

within their bows or scatter and hoard them in small buried caches outside of

them in small buried caches outside of their Borough all around their territory

their Borough all around their territory so this is a photograph of a kangaroo

so this is a photograph of a kangaroo rat Larder this is it's cash where it's

rat Larder this is it's cash where it's storing all of those seeds for a rainy

storing all of those seeds for a rainy day animals that exhibit adaptations for

day animals that exhibit adaptations for consuming leaves stems Buds and other

consuming leaves stems Buds and other green portions of plants are referred to

green portions of plants are referred to as folivaris meaning the leaf eaters

as folivaris meaning the leaf eaters only about four percent of mammals

only about four percent of mammals specialize in the consumption of leaves

specialize in the consumption of leaves and stems like grazing and browsing

and stems like grazing and browsing mentioned earlier consuming leaves and

mentioned earlier consuming leaves and stems requires considerable

stems requires considerable morphological adjustment in dentition

morphological adjustment in dentition jaw musculature and of course gut

jaw musculature and of course gut morphology leaves are difficult to

morphology leaves are difficult to digest and they have poor nutritional

digest and they have poor nutritional value and in response to predation of

value and in response to predation of leaves by herbivores many of these

leaves by herbivores many of these plants have evolved diverse chemical

plants have evolved diverse chemical defenses like toxic phenols and terpenes

defenses like toxic phenols and terpenes in spite of these obstacles three

in spite of these obstacles three species of marsupials subsist on

species of marsupials subsist on seemingly unpalatable leaves of

seemingly unpalatable leaves of eucalyptus trees koalas uh pictured here

eucalyptus trees koalas uh pictured here as well as the greater gliders and the

as well as the greater gliders and the common ring-tailed possums in eastern

common ring-tailed possums in eastern Australia

Australia for Livery is represented in about 12 of

for Livery is represented in about 12 of the primate General within this group uh

the primate General within this group uh notable full of Wars include the

notable full of Wars include the injuries the howler monkeys the langers

injuries the howler monkeys the langers uh of course the gorillas pictured here

uh of course the gorillas pictured here the colobus and leaf monkeys of Africa

the colobus and leaf monkeys of Africa and Asia the diet of gorillas actually

and Asia the diet of gorillas actually the largest of all primates is going to

the largest of all primates is going to consist of about 86 percent leaves

consist of about 86 percent leaves shoots and stems and then lastly on the

shoots and stems and then lastly on the bottom right we have the two and three

bottom right we have the two and three toed sloths of South America that feed

toed sloths of South America that feed almost exclusively on leaves stems and

almost exclusively on leaves stems and fruit and let us not forget the giant

fruit and let us not forget the giant panda who is well known for its

panda who is well known for its consumption of bamboo shoots so the

consumption of bamboo shoots so the carnassial teeth of pandas are well

carnassial teeth of pandas are well adapted for crushing and slicing up

adapted for crushing and slicing up fibrous plants but because bamboo is so

fibrous plants but because bamboo is so low in nutritional value giant pandas

low in nutritional value giant pandas are going to spend about 12 hours a day

are going to spend about 12 hours a day consuming up to 40 kilograms that's over

consuming up to 40 kilograms that's over 80 pounds of bamboo and yet they're

80 pounds of bamboo and yet they're going to digest less than 20 percent of

going to digest less than 20 percent of what they eat much of the stem is passed

what they eat much of the stem is passed through the gut relatively unchanged

through the gut relatively unchanged mammals that exhibit adaptations to

mammals that exhibit adaptations to consume a diet of fruit which of course

consume a diet of fruit which of course is the reproductive part of the

is the reproductive part of the flowering plants are referred to as

flowering plants are referred to as frugivorous meaning the fruit eating

frugivorous meaning the fruit eating mammals so mammals from several families

mammals so mammals from several families are known to specialize in the

are known to specialize in the consumption of fruit the old world fruit

consumption of fruit the old world fruit bats or the flying foxes as pictured

bats or the flying foxes as pictured here as well as the new world leaf-nosed

here as well as the new world leaf-nosed bats the cuscuses and brushtail possums

bats the cuscuses and brushtail possums uh which we covered already tree shrews

uh which we covered already tree shrews primates such as lemurs lorises many old

primates such as lemurs lorises many old world monkeys Calibus monkeys as well as

world monkeys Calibus monkeys as well as our closest Cousins the chimpanzees and

our closest Cousins the chimpanzees and bonobos

bonobos as fruit can have a hard outer covering

as fruit can have a hard outer covering the teeth of some of these frugalores

the teeth of some of these frugalores are adapted for piercing and crushing uh

are adapted for piercing and crushing uh through that skin of the fruit insects

through that skin of the fruit insects and hummingbirds are not the only

and hummingbirds are not the only animals that have evolved to exploit

animals that have evolved to exploit nectar in fact some mammals are also

nectar in fact some mammals are also exquisitely adapted to capitalize on

exquisitely adapted to capitalize on this resource to take advantage of high

this resource to take advantage of high caloric nectar and in the process spread

caloric nectar and in the process spread the pollen of the host plant

the pollen of the host plant so nectar Rivery meaning nectar eating

so nectar Rivery meaning nectar eating mammals are represented by about six

mammals are represented by about six Genera of bats as well as the marsupial

Genera of bats as well as the marsupial honey possums their skulls are

honey possums their skulls are characterized by elongated snouts small

characterized by elongated snouts small weak teeth poorly developed jaw

weak teeth poorly developed jaw musculature however their tongues are

musculature however their tongues are long and slender and protrude as shown

long and slender and protrude as shown here to access that high caloric nectar

here to access that high caloric nectar and they typically have a brush tip and

and they typically have a brush tip and then they have many rows of these hair

then they have many rows of these hair like papillae pointed back towards the

like papillae pointed back towards the throat as shown here shockingly there

throat as shown here shockingly there are even some mammals that consume

are even some mammals that consume primarily the exudes of trees such as

primarily the exudes of trees such as resins sap or gums and they're termed uh

resins sap or gums and they're termed uh gumiverus meaning gum eating mammals so

gumiverus meaning gum eating mammals so this peculiar diet occurs in eight

this peculiar diet occurs in eight species of marmosets the bush babies the

species of marmosets the bush babies the potatoes the slow lorises four species

potatoes the slow lorises four species of the Peta urid gliders the wrist

of the Peta urid gliders the wrist winged gliders marsupial gliders as well

winged gliders marsupial gliders as well as the lead Butters possum all members

as the lead Butters possum all members of the dwarf and mouse lemurs are going

of the dwarf and mouse lemurs are going to feed on tree exudes so the diet of

to feed on tree exudes so the diet of the uh Fork marked mouse lemur of

the uh Fork marked mouse lemur of Madagascar pictured here consists of

Madagascar pictured here consists of close to 90 percent its diet is 90

close to 90 percent its diet is 90 percent gum from the Trunks and branches

percent gum from the Trunks and branches of trees animals that consume fungi

of trees animals that consume fungi mushrooms and such are referred to as

mushrooms and such are referred to as mycophagus meaning fungus eating so it's

mycophagus meaning fungus eating so it's noteworthy that about 22 species of

noteworthy that about 22 species of primates consume fungi including

primates consume fungi including marmosets gorillas bonobos macaques

marmosets gorillas bonobos macaques vervet monkeys mango bees and this guy

vervet monkeys mango bees and this guy the

the snub-nosed monkey whose diet is actually

snub-nosed monkey whose diet is actually composed of 95 five percent mushrooms so

composed of 95 five percent mushrooms so fleshy fungi are about 70 to 90 percent

fleshy fungi are about 70 to 90 percent water but they do provide a great source

water but they do provide a great source of protein and phosphorus to the

of protein and phosphorus to the consumer and then below ground those

consumer and then below ground those sporal carbs are reported to have very

sporal carbs are reported to have very high concentrations of nitrogen vitamins

high concentrations of nitrogen vitamins and other minerals the vast majority of

and other minerals the vast majority of mammals are omnivorous meaning

mammals are omnivorous meaning everything eating I certainly feel that

everything eating I certainly feel that way and mammals are notably

way and mammals are notably opportunistic so each order of mammals

opportunistic so each order of mammals contains omnivorous species however

contains omnivorous species however omnivore is best Illustrated in the

omnivore is best Illustrated in the opossums the primates including you and

opossums the primates including you and I the humans uh pigs bears like this sun

I the humans uh pigs bears like this sun bear here as well as raccoons the

bear here as well as raccoons the dentition of omnivores is versatile it's

dentition of omnivores is versatile it's adapted to process a variety of foods as

adapted to process a variety of foods as you would expect on the Universe mammals

you would expect on the Universe mammals are going to retain piercing and ripping

are going to retain piercing and ripping cusps in the anterior teeth but

cusps in the anterior teeth but typically have flat broad cheek teeth

typically have flat broad cheek teeth with bunodont cusps that are adapted for

with bunodont cusps that are adapted for crushing food the stomachs of omnivores

crushing food the stomachs of omnivores such as pigs are comparatively simple

such as pigs are comparatively simple the cecum of most omnivores is poorly

the cecum of most omnivores is poorly developed due to the lack of fibrous

developed due to the lack of fibrous plant material in the diet

plant material in the diet Q 58 slides I believe that is a new

Q 58 slides I believe that is a new record uh for us Pat yourselves on the

record uh for us Pat yourselves on the back Round of Applause you've done it I

back Round of Applause you've done it I hope you enjoyed all of the beautiful

hope you enjoyed all of the beautiful pictures and I promise you our last

pictures and I promise you our last lecture for the week is considerably

lecture for the week is considerably shorter thank you so much for your time

shorter thank you so much for your time cheers

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YouTube Transcript:Lecture 3.3_Mammalian Modes of Feeding

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Lecture 3.3_Mammalian Modes of Feeding