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1918-1939: What Really Started World War 2?

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[Music] Heat.

September. Nomber the 1st, 1939,

German troops thrust deep into Poland to

win a swift and absolute victory.

Barely 20 years earlier, their

forefathers had also been on the march,

but back into their homeland as a

defeated army.

In November 1918, after 4 years of World

War I, Germany's Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm

II had been forced to abdicate.

His armies were being ground down by a

remorseless offensive by British,

French, and US troops.

But already a dangerous myth was taking root.

root.

The German generals and troops claimed

that they hadn't been defeated in

battle, but betrayed by their own

Even so, at 11:00 in the morning on

November the 11th, 1918, the 11th hour

of the 11th day of the 11th month, World

The following month, President Woodrow

Wilson of the United States arrived in

Europe, promising to create a new world order.

He persuaded the world's leaders to sign

At the Treaty of Versailles, they agreed

that from now on, disputes between

countries would be resolved not by

The peoples of Europe were set free and

Germany's ally, the Austrohungarian

Empire, was dismembered. Out of it, new

nations were created. Austria, Poland,

Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia,

Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. Germany

But this process contained a time bomb.

Not everyone celebrated the birth of

countries like Czechoslovakia.

Several of them contained substantial

German minorities.

One day the desire to reunite the German

The wartorrn German people also had one

final indignity inflicted on them. They

were forced to pay a massive 6.6 billion

pounds in reparations to France and

Britain, something they could ill afford.

afford.

And when he returned to America,

Wilson's new world order immediately

fell apart. The US Congress decided it

could not risk being sucked into another

war in Europe. It refused to join his

league and the US withdrew into isolationism.

Germany was now a very different nation.

It was still Europe's biggest country,

but its militaristic monarchy had gone.

It had become a democracy.

But its government, the so-called VHimar

Republic, was soon struck by a series of

hammer bones. [Music]

[Music]

Street battles erupted between extreme

right-wing nationalists and communists

Then in 1923, the country was devastated

by hyperinflation which reached hundreds

of percent a month.

Ordinary people's savings were wiped out.

This was fertile ground for a new breed

of rabbel rousing right-wing politicians.

politicians. [Music]

[Music] Among

Among

them, Adolf Hitler.

Hitler had been born in Austria. He had

fought bravely as a soldier in World War

I and been awarded the Iron Cross.

On returning to Germany, he settled in

Munich and his fiery oratory soon

enabled him to seize control of the

small national socialist or Nazi party. [Music]

[Music]

In October 1923, Hitler and his henchmen

attempted an armed coup against the

VHimar government. It failed and he was

in prison. He wrote a book, Mine Camp,

My Struggle, in which he blamed

Germany's ills on the Jews and demanded

that it rebuild its strength and seek

On his release, he set about building

the Nazis into a proper disciplined

political party.

From now on, he would use the democratic

But for the next 5 years, Vhimar Germany

prospered. Support for extremist parties

left and right dwindled.

Then suddenly Hitler's opportunity arrived.

In October 1929, the US stock market crashed.

crashed.

Billions of dollars were lost and an

economic depression swept across the world.

world.

Unemployment in Germany soared to over 6

million. Only extremist politicians

Politicians like Hitler. By 1931, his

Nazis were a true mass movement.

and they had their own brownshirted

thugs, the SA storm troops, who numbered

almost 3 million.

In the 1932 elections, the Nazis became

the largest party in Germany's

But Hitler refused to join a coalition,

leaving Parliament paralyzed. to break

the armpass. President Hindenburg made

him chancellor in January 1933 head of

[Music]

Within a month, the Reichd burned down.

Hitler accused the communists and

demanded emergency powers. He then used

them to ban all other political parties.

In August 1934, President Hindenburg

died. Hitler declared himself president.

He was now absolute leader, the furer of Germany.

Germany. [Applause]

[Applause] [Music]

[Music]

At first, there was little sign of what

was to come.

For the next 3 years, the Furer

concentrated on rebuilding Germany's economy.

economy.

He spent millions on public works,

including the 5,000mi autob barn system

But in secret, Hitler was also spending

Under the Versailles treaty, the German

army had been limited to a 100,000 men.

The country was forbidden to have an air

force, tanks, or submarines. [Music]

[Music]

This small army was trebled in size.

Then in 1935, Hitler came out into the

open. He unveiled a brand new air force,

the Luftvaf. It had 2 and a half

thousand planes, far more than Britain

Unemployment plunged and the Nazis

Now emboldened, Nefura made his first

expansionist move. In 1935, he

reoccupied the Sland district on the

French border after it voted to return

A year later he sent German troops into

the Rhineland part of Germany which had

At the time many felt that Hitler was

only claiming back what was rightfully

Germany's. Neither Britain nor France objected.

When Berlin hosted the 1936 Olympic

Games, the Nazis were seen by many as

firm but fair, a government which was

restoring the nation's pride and which

Of course, there were signs. The 1935

Nuremberg laws forbad Jews to marry true

Aryan Germans and deprived them of their citizenship.

citizenship. [Music]

[Music]

But when the first threats came to world

peace, they didn't come from Hitler at all,

all,

[Music]

Japan at the start of the 20th century

was already a military park.

It had defeated Russia in a war in 1905

and it had fought alongside the allies

After the war, Japan was an acknowledged

world power

and it signed up to the League of Nations.

But politically, it was a mess of contradictions.

contradictions.

Nominally a democracy, the feudal

tradition was still strong. Most

Japanese revered their emperor as a

living god and regarded him as their

true leader.

And the country faced major economic

problems. Its population was exploding

and it had no natural resources to fuel

its rapidly expanding industries.

Its leaders needed solutions, and they

Manuria was a land of rich grain fields

with plenty of coal and minerals.

It was a perfect target. Japanese troops

were already stationed there.

Other possible targets were the colonies

ruled by the European powers. Burma,

Malaya and Hong Kong controlled by

Britain, Indo-China ruled by France and

the Dutch East Indies.

But at this stage, Japan had to be

cautious. They didn't want to rouse the

other great power in the Pacific,

the United States.

For all its anti-imperialist slogans,

the US actually ran an unofficial empire

in the Pacific. The Philippines, Guam,

and several islands were under its

direct rule. [Music]

[Music]

It undoubtedly had the strength to take

on Japan, but since the end of World War

Throughout the 1920s, a nation

concentrated on exploiting its vast resources.

resources.

There was an economic boom that seemed

without end. Fortunes were made both in

industry and the stock markets. America

seemed lost to the increasing pursuit of pleasure.

pleasure. [Music]

[Music]

With distractions like these, Japan's

growing pains in the Pacific seemed very

America had slashed its army after World

War I and agreed a naval reduction

treaty with Britain, France, and Japan.

This in effect handed naval superiority

As the economic devastation spread, a

quarter of the population lost their

jobs. Tens of thousands were made

homeless, living in shanty towns.

Whereas before it had been distracted by

pleasure, now America was distracted by

pain. It was time for Japan to make her move.

In 1931, without even informing their

own elected government, the Japanese

forces in Manuria seized the capital

Mukde and then overran the rest of the territory.

territory. [Music]

[Music]

A puppet state, Manchu Ko, was

proclaimed under a puppet ruler. Henry

Pui, the last emperor of China, who had

been deposed in 1911, was dragged out of retirement.

At its headquarters in Geneva, the

League of Nations now faced its first

great test. Japan was universally condemned.

condemned.

But her response was blunt. Japan, however,

however,

find it impossible to accept the report

adopted by the assembly.

The Japanese then just walked out and

the league suddenly realized there was

Japan was declared an international

pariah but it didn't care. Its leaders

had turned their eyes to further

conquests in China.

These were easy pickings. China was in a

state of chaos. The government of

General Isimo Chang Kaishek was locked

in conflict with the Chinese Communist

[Music]

In 1936, as a precursor to invasion, the

Japanese signed a pact with Hitler. The

aim was to guard against any attack by

Then in July 1937, the Japanese provoked

an incident with Chinese troops and invaded.

At first, the Chinese were taken by surprise,

but they soon fought back fiercely. The

communists even joining the Quintang in

The Japanese responded with amphibious

landings. By the end of 1937, they had

overrun much of northern China and the coast.

coast. [Music]

[Music]

The Japanese fought this war with

exceptional brutality, bombing cities indiscriminately.

indiscriminately.

Westerners living in the commercial

center, the port of Shanghai, were now

evacuated. The city was then besieged

for 3 months. [Music]

It suffered widespread damage. The

Japanese forces showing no pity or

But it was after the capture of Nank

King, then the Chinese capital on

December the 17th, 1937, that the

Japanese forces really ran along. Over

300,000 civilians are estimated to have

been massacred during a 6-w week orgy of

The Japanese even attacked British and

US warships which had been sent to

protect their shipping and trade.

The worst incident came on December the

12th, 1937. The American gunboat Pane

was sunk by Japanese bombers. 50 crewmen died.

Despite this, the Western powers refused

So, the League of Nations could do nothing.

In the United States, President

Roosevelt wanted to impose a naval

blockade of Japan.

It has become clear that acts and

policies of nations in other parts of

the world have farreaching effects on us.

us.

But the British would have none of it,

fearing that it might provoke a war. So

all Roosevelt could offer was a $25

million loan to Chiang Kaishek to buy arms.

Even though the communists were now

fighting alongside the Quintang, the

Soviet Union did little to help either.

Its only involvement was a series of

clashes along its own border with Manuria.

But China itself received nothing.

During 1938, the Japanese overran Canton

and pushed the Chinese forces deeper

into the west of the country. All the

rhetoric of the League of Nations. All

those promises to stop international

aggression had come to nothing. And by

now, the Western powers were facing

Today it is easy to laugh at Bonito

Mussolini, the fascist dictator of

Italy. All that posturing seems faintly

ridiculous now, but it didn't seem that

Back then, Italy had seemed to be on the

edge of anarchy. The country was riven

by strikes and land seizures.

The democratic government, just as in

Germany, seemed powerless in the face of

such unrest. So, Bonito Mussolini, a war

veteran and a journalist, decided to

take a stand. He organized a right-wing

With a country paralyzed by a general

strike in August 1922, Mussolini ordered

his followers to march on Rome. [Music]

[Music]

Fearing a civil war, Italy's king,

Victor Emanuel, asked him to form a government.

Mussolini swiftly stamped out any

political opposition and assumed

government was appointed rather than

elected and all power was firmly in the

Like Hitler, Mussolini's first acts made

him immensely popular.

Massive programs of public works

provided employment and transformed

Corruption was rooted out and the mafia

Italy's armed forces were built up,

In the Mediterranean, Mussolini launched

a powerful navy bigger than the combined

might of the British and French

When the Great Depression came, Italy

Mussolini became a source of worldwide

inspiration. Political leaders, not

least Adolf Hitler in Germany, saw the

fascist system as a role model, strong

and purposeful, in contrast to the

weakness of the democracies in Britain

and France.

But Mussolini wanted more than

adulation. He wanted to recreate the

Roman Empire. And he already had a

target in mind for his first imperial

His target was Abbiscinia, today's Ethiopia.

Ethiopia.

Italy already had colonies on its

borders in Eritraa and Italian Somaliand.

In December 1934, Italian forces

provoked a clash with Abbiscinian troops

at an oasis in the Augaden region, well

inside Abbiscinian territory. [Music]

[Music]

Mussolini then sent reinforcements to

Eritraa and Italian Somali. demanding

The emperor of Abbiscinia, Haley

Salassie, appealed in person to the

He called on it to live up to its

ideals. Here was a small nation under

threat from another member of the

League. This was the supreme test. But

the League did nothing.

Britain's foreign minister, Anthony

Eden, at least tried to broker a peace

deal, but Mussolini would have none of it.

In early October 1935, the Italian army

invaded from Eritraa and Italian Somalia.

Somalia. [Music]

The primitive Abbiscinian forces stood

little chance against a modern army

[Music]

The Italian air force had total command

of the air and harried the abbberinians

on occasions dropping gas bombs even

though gas had been outlawed at

After 6 months, Abiscinia was completely overrun.

overrun.

The emperor Hilis Salassie fled into

From its headquarters in Switzerland,

the League of Nations rung its hands. It

did impose economic sanctions, but they

Mussolini's aggression had revealed two

things. The League of Nations, that

great hope for peace, was impotent, and

both Europe's supposed major powers, the

democracies Britain and France, no

[Music]

Both Britain and France had been

shattered by World War I, and their

Both had witnessed waves of strikes and

unrest. Both had suffered mass

unemployment even before the Great Depression.

Depression. [Music]

[Music]

Both also faced the cost of controlling

empires now swollen by taking on

Germany's former colonies and the Middle

Eastern territories once run by the

And above all, both had been traumatized

by the horrific casualties of World War

I. A succession of British leaders, Roy

George, Ramsey Macdonald, and above all,

Stanley Baldwin, all resolved to keep

Despite horrific casualties on the

Western Front, Britain had ended World

War I with a large and very effective

conscript army.

This was immediately run down to a small

professional force designed to police

And when the Great Depression struck,

any ideas of modernizing the army were

abandoned. It meant that Britain went

into the runup to war economically and

French losses during World War I had

Ever mistrustful of the Germans, a large

conscript army was maintained. But

throughout the 1920s, France's birth

rate had declined. It became clear that

there would be a manpower shortage by

the mid to late 1930s.

France realized it could never compete

with Germany on the size of its army alone.

The solution was to adopt an entirely

[Music]

The Majino line, a series of

fortifications, was begun in 1930 along

the frontier with Germany and ran as far

as the Belgian border. [Music]

[Music]

There it theoretically linked up with

This new French military approach meant

that France was only capable of waging a

defensive war.

It just did not have the ability to

launch an attack on Italy, even if the

And of course, both countries knew that

their navies in the Mediterranean were

So when Italy conquered Abiscinia, it

made sense for both powers to do

nothing. It just seemed too remote, too

much someone else's problem. [Applause]

By now, they both had to deal with all

the traumas of the Great Depression.

That seemed so much more pressing. And

above all, they were now faced with a

military threat far closer to home. [Music]

[Music]

And Germany's power and that of Italy

too was soon about to be demonstrated in

supporting the rise of another dictator

In 1936, civil war erupted in Spain. It

was exceptionally vicious, setting

family against family, communist against

fascist, believers against atheists. [Music]

[Music]

In 1931, a left-wing government had come

to power, determined to get rid of the

centuries old Spanish monarchy.

The king was forced into exile and a

In February 1936, the parties of the

left combined in a popular front to take

on the forces of the right in a general

election. The popular front won narrowly.

Even though its reform program was

modest, a wave of strikes and land

seizes led the right to fear that a

communist takeover was inevitable. [Music]

[Music]

Within the Spanish army, long a bastion

of conservative and Catholic thinking,

senior officers began to consider the

possibility of a coup.

Among them was General Francisco Franco,

the former chief of staff who had been

effectively exiled to command Spain's

On July the 17th, 1936, the units of the

army fighting guerrillas in Spain's

The next day, Franco flew to join them,

proclaiming a new nationalist movement

which would save Spain from communism.

Mainland garrisons now join this revolt.

The Popular Front responded by calling

for volunteers to defend the republic.

[Music]

At first, Franco faced problems. He and

his army were in North Africa and he had

to get across the streets of Gibraltar

back to Spain. So he turned to the one

person he thought might help, Adolf Hitler.

Within a month, transport aircraft from

Hitler's new Luftvafer had begun an

airlift, taking Franco's battleh

hardened veterans over to southern Spain.

At this stage, the republic still seemed

to have the advantage. The pro- Franco

military uprisings in Madrid and

Barcelona were quickly crushed, leaving

it in control of most of the east of the country.

Franco's nationalists were confined

largely to the northwest and part of the south.

But the nationalist situation was

transformed when Hitler and Mussolini

The German dictator seized the

opportunity to test his new equipment

and expanding armed forces.

The first Panza tanks were sent along

with some 12,000 troops.

And the Luftwuffer deployed its Condor

Legion with its ultramodern new bombers

Mussolini sent a so-called volunteer

corps of 50,000 men and more than 700 aircraft.

In vain did the Republicans appeal to

Britain, France, and the Soviet Union

for help.

But London and Paris were scared of

setting off a European war. They

declared a policy of non-intervention. [Music]

[Music]

Cynically, both Germany and Italy signed

up to this. But when it became obvious

that they were still sending arms to the

nationalists, Ysef Stalin, the Soviet

leader, announced that he would help the Republic.

Stalin's worry was the rise of fascism

in Germany.

Hitler had made it abundantly clear that

he believed communism to be Nazism's

Stalin saw the Spanish conflict as a way

of keeping Germany and Italy occupied

while building up the Soviet Union's

About 700 military advisers were sent

along with tanks and fighter aircraft.

It was something, but no match for the

In fact, the largest source of outside

help for the republic didn't come from a

country at all, but from volunteers, the

international brigades. About 30,000

left-wing Americans, British, French,

With their new fascist support, the

nationalists were able to open two

fronts. One advancing towards Barcelona

from the north, the other led by Franco

pushing up towards Madrid from the south.

south.

By the end of 1936, Madrid was enveloped

on three sides and virtually under siege.

The fighting was intense and often

accompanied by appalling atrocities

The Republicans hunted down and murdered

Roman Catholic priests. The nationalists

slaughtered anyone accused of being communist.

communist. [Music]

[Music]

German and Italian air power was used

indiscriminately against civilian targets.

targets.

Madrid was heavily bombed.

But the worst incident came in April

1937 when the Basque town of Ganeka was

virtually obliterated with 6,000

The area controlled by the Republic was

steadily grounded down. Its forces

fought with great gallantry, but

undertrained and underequipped amateurs

were no match for the professional

soldiers led by Franco or for the

combined modern weaponry of Italy and Germany.

As the war dragged on, the fighting

around Madrid became a symbol of the

left's determination not to be crushed

But behind the scenes, the Republican

alliance was falling apart. The

communists and socialists wanted to

concentrate on winning a military victory.

victory. [Music]

[Music]

But the more idealistic anarchists and

syndicicalists saw the war as an

opportunity for a mass revolution by the workers.

These disagreements burst out into the

open in May 1937.

Fighting broke out in Barcelona between

the anarchists and communists. It was a

By the end of 1938, the nationalists had

penned their enemy into a small enclave

around Barcelona and another stretching

Madrid continued to hold out, but the

international brigades were withdrawn.

More and more nations began to recognize

Franco's government as his forces closed

[Music]

At the end of March 1939, its defenders

exhausted after nearly 3 years of

fighting, the capital finally surrendered.

surrendered. [Music]

A month later, Franco formally declared

hostilities at an end. [Music]

[Music]

The scars of Spain's civil war took

years to heal, and in some ways they

And internationally, Franco's victory

over the Republic proved a disaster.

Hitler and Mussolini were confirmed in

their belief that the democracies of

Britain and France were impotent to

While Stalin despared of their

Hitler in particular saw his way open to

begin the aggressive policies outlined

in mine.

Even before the Spanish Civil War ended,

his armies were on the march. [Music]

[Music] [Applause]

[Applause]

From the moment he became Chancellor of

Germany on January the 30th, 1933,

Hitler had begun to put his long-term

On February the 3rd, he told his top

commanders that his ultimate aim was to

conquer territory in the east and

ruthlessly Germanize it. They were

instructed to prepare for a massive expansion.

Although Germany had been forbidden

tanks, a secret treaty with the Soviet

Union in 1923 had allowed the

development of tank designs and

experimentation with new mobile armored tactics.

Energetic young German officers like

Heinserian read the theories of British

thinkers like Basil Little Hart and

Colonel John Fulham.

They even watched exercises being

carried out by the British during the

1920s on Ssbury play. It was from these

that they came up with the idea of fastm

moving units combining tanks, artillery,

and infantry that could thrust fast and

Hitler adopted their ideas with

enthusiasm. The new army was to have

Similarly, the new air force, the

Luftvafer, under former World War I

fighter ace Herman Guring had had a

framework to build on [Music]

[Music]

throughout the years in which its air

force was officially banned. Germany had

kept up its design skills by building

civilian machines and gliding and flying

clubs provided a reserve of potential aircraft.

Hitler revealed the existence of the

He then announced that the army was to

be increased to 300,000 men and

Britain and France protested feebly at

this flagrant breach of the Versail treaty.

treaty.

But soon they reluctantly and slowly

Until this point, Hitler had been modest

in his goals. He had only taken back

what was his, the Rhineland and Salah.

But now he had a grander target in mind,

In 1934, Austrian Nazis had attempted to

seize power and unify the country with Germany.

Germany.

The Austrians, after all, spoke German,

even if they had never been part of a

German state.

In February 1938, another Nazi plot was

discovered. Austrian Chancellor Kurt von

Hitler responded by demanding that

Austria stop mistreating the Austrian

Nazis and unite with Germany. [Music]

[Music] [Applause]

a referendum so that the Austrians could

But on March the 12th, 1938, the eve of

the referendum, Hitler, fearing that it

might produce the wrong result, sent in

his troops.

Complete surprise and an enthusiastic

welcome by Nazi sympathizers made it a

bloodless invasion.

Within hours, Hitler announced Austria's

incorporation into the Third Reich. A

sovereign nation had for the first time

been subsumed into a greater Germany.

Once again, the Western democracies

In the summer of 1938, he turned on his

next prey, Czechoslovakia.

A substantial German minority lived in

the northwest of the country, an area

These Sudatan Germans had been part of

the old Austrian Empire, but had been

cut off when Czechoslovakia was created

This was the time bomb that had started

ticking at the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

Hitler encouraged Sudatan German demands

for autonomy and then threatened a Czech

government with force if it refused to agree.

Undaunted, the Czech government ordered

general mobilization and prepared to resist.

resist.

The Czechoslovak army was large and well

equipped with formidable fortifications

on its frontier with Germany. Hitler

But then at the beginning of September,

concerned that war might be imminent,

the British Prime Minister Neville

Chamberlain decided to act as a peacemaker.

He flew to meet Hitler twice. The Nazi

dictator assured him that if he could

have the Sudatan land, he would make no

In Munich on September the 29th, 1938,

with Mussolini acting as mediator,

France and Britain signed an agreement

giving the Sudatan land to Germany in

return for a formal declaration by

Hitler that he had no more territorial ambitions.

Chamberlain flew back to Britain waving

the piece of paper which he claimed

And so on October the 1st, German troops

occupied the Sudatan land and seized the

Hitler now began sizing up his next

target, Poland. Again,

the nominal cause was a German minority

marooned as a result of the Versail treaty.

Hitler demanded the return of the port

of Danik to German control so that East

Prussia could be linked up with the rest

The Poles refused and Hitler hesitated.

He was not quite ready for allout war

and he had unfinished business with Czechoslovakia.

Czechoslovakia. [Applause]

[Applause]

In March 1939, the eastern part of the

country, Slovakia, which was ethnically

different to the Czech lands, appealed

to Hitler for help in achieving greater independence.

Hitler summoned the Czechoslovak prime

minister Emil Hatcha to Berlin and

browbeat him into putting his country

under German protection. [Applause]

German troops now marched into the rest

of Czechoslovakia unopposed.

Most of the country was annexed into the

Reich. Slovakia was declared a protectorate

protectorate

for the first time. Hitler had seized

non-Germanspeaking territory, but again

there was only a feeble protest from

Britain and France.

At the end of March, he again repeated

his demand of Poland give up dancing.

This time, France and Britain declared

unequivocally that they would declare

war if he attacked Poland.

But by now, Hitler cared little whether

they did or not. He was sure that they

in Russia. Stalin had also become

increasingly concerned by Hitler's

aggression. In April, Stalin proposed an

alliance with Britain and France.

But negotiations made little progress

and finally Stalin despared, deciding

that there was another solution to the

On August the 23rd, the Soviet Union and

the Third Reich, who everyone had

believed were sworn enemies, announced a

non-aggression pact. [Music]

[Music]

The agreement secretly specified that

Poland would be split between the two

countries and Stalin would have a free

hand to take over Estonia, Latafia, and Lithuania.

Now free from any Russian threat, Hitler

ordered his armed forces to prepare for

On the evening of August the 31st, the

German Fairmarked prepared for the

assault. Its furer had made the decision

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1918-1939: What Really Started World War 2?