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Video Summary

Summary

Core Theme

This content provides a comprehensive overview of geographical processes related to water cycles, river systems, coastal environments, and natural hazards, explaining their formation, characteristics, influencing factors, and human impacts.

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River environments and we're looking at

the hydrological cycle which as the name

suggests is all to do with water let's

start with the definition so the

hydrological cycle is the global

circulation of water it is a closed

system made up of both stores and

transfers and we'll be looking at what

those stores and transfers are in a

great amount of detail but what do we

mean by a closed system well it

basically means that water can neither

leave or enter the Earth's surface or

atmosphere what do we mean by transfer

well that's the movement of water

between stores and there's lots of

different transfers you need to know

about the first one is evaporation

evaporation is when heat energy causes

the temperature of the water to rise

until it turns into steam and forms

clouds next up is transpiration if you

do biology you'll know all about this

it's where plants absorb water their

roots and then they transpire that water

out of their leaves and I'm trying very

hard not to mention Stato Etc because as

geographers you just need to know that

that water evaporates from the surface

of the plant's leaves a term which you

may have heard is the combination of

those two terms and that is evapor

transpiration condensation now which is

the opposite of evaporation that's when

that water vapor cools and condenses

turning back into a liquid and that's

what you often find occurring at Clouds

now precipitation that's effective when

water transfers itself from the

atmosphere to the Earth's surface so it

includes things such as snow rain hail

that sort of thing slightly more

complicated now surface runoff that's

when water falls as rain and then it

runs across the Earth's surface into

surrounding streams and rivers through

flow is when water drains through the

soil due to the force of gravity and

again that water will collect in streams

and rivers groundw flow occurs in rocks

of the aquifer remember an Acer is the

porous rock that allows water to drain

through it and in this way water will

reach Seas rivers and lakes so those are

the different types of transfers you

need to know about but what sort of

human factors can affect the amount of

transfer that occurs well the first main

one is urbanization when we build cities

and towns and we pave and we concrete

and we tarmac the surface of the Earth

that basically increases the amount of

runoff that occurs because obviously

that water is not draining into the soil

it's not draining into the aquaus in the

same way and you will find that

urbanization does lead to an increase in

the speed at which these water transfers

occurs deforestation that's another

human activity it means cutting down

trees remember we cut down those trees

for building materials to provide land

for farming fuel Etc what happens when

we DeForest is we lose the top soil

because it means we no longer have the

tree roots holding down the soil and

again that will increase surface runoff

we've looked at human factors but what

about physical factors which affect

water transfers so the first one is rock

type you'll find that non-porous rocks

will allow water to run up far more

quickly because that water won't be

soaking through the rock vegetation will

also have a large effect if you have

more trees then that will increase the

rates of rain interception as well as

increasing the rates of transpiration

and as a consequence evapor

transpiration we'll touch a little bit

on storage here because the third

physical factor which will affect water

transfers is global warming as

temperatures increase you will find that

the stores of ice and snow reduce

however there will be an increased trans

to our seas and oceans due to increased

precipitation rates we will now deal

with water stores and that's where water

is stored within the hydrological cycle

and that falls into three broad

categories that will be land sea and the

atmosphere so we'll now go through those

in a lot more detail first of all lakes

now water is stored in Lakes because it

has a bottom made up of a non-porous

Rock which means the water can't drain

away Rivers hopefully are quite

self-explanatory as well as the sea you

find that soil is a good store of water

because that water can't percolate

through to the Bedrock other examples of

good water stores that you need to

mention in your exam are ground water

surface water clouds ice and then that

aquaa which remember is a porous rock

that allows water to drain through it

sometimes it's useful to see a pictorial

representation so you can understand how

all the stores and transfers are linked

so because it's a cycle it doesn't

really matter where you start but let's

have a look down here so heat energy

causes the water water's temperature to

rise it becomes steam it evaporates up

to form clouds we said that any water

coming from the clouds in the form of

hail rain snow is examples of

precipitation so that's what we can see

here we can see ice falling over there

through surface runoff where that water

runs over the Earth's surface we know

that water due to gravity will lead to

rivers lakes streams Etc so we can see

how the water is returning to the Sea as

a store vegetation interception we

already talked about which which is a

physical Factor affecting water

transfers those trees will be absorbing

that water at their Roots transpiration

will be occurring as a result of that

then down here we have examples showing

through flow and groundwater flow

remember through flow is due to gravity

where water drains through the soil

until it reaches either a stream or

river groundwater flow occurs in rocks

of the aquafer remember that's your

permeable Rock and involves the transfer

of water to lakes rivers and the sea so

you can't see absolutely everything on

this diagram but I'm hoping you

understand how water's stored and how

that water is transferred and remember

this is a closed system water is neither

allowed to leave or enter the Earth's

surface and

atmosphere now we're going to move on to

the drainage basin what is a drainage

basin well it is an area of land drained

by a river it's an open system and that

means that the amount of water varies

over time due to changes in external

inputs and outputs so what sort of

inputs are there of a drainage base then

the first one which is probably the

least obvious is energy from the Sun but

then let's think about how would water

be added to a drainage basin while

precipitation is a good method so

remember that's anything that falls from

the sky rain fall snow hail Etc as well

as water from tribut Tre basins remember

a tribut Tre is a small river which

joins the main river Channel what about

the outputs of a drainage basin now so

how does water leave the drainage basin

transpiration and evaporate

transpiration is going to be important

here remember transpiration occurs from

the leaves of plants as well as the

river's discharge which we will spend an

awful lot of this video discussing just

one thing to point out a drainage basin

is very different from a hydrological

cycle in the ad drainage basin is an

open system as I said previously the

amount of water that enters and leaves

varies unlike the hydrological cycle

where the total amount of water remains

constant now we're going to talk about

characteristics and features of the

drainage basin so remember again that's

the area of land drained by a river the

first thing you need to be aware of is

the source and that is the origin of the

river next up the Watershed that is the

boundary of the drainage basin it's a

raised piece of land which separates one

drainage basin from another the Channel

network is if you think about a river

it's covered by a network of tribut

trees so that Channel network is that

area of land covered by both the river

and its tributaries the mouth of the

river is the point where the river ends

and that tends to be at a sea or an

ocean and finally catchment that is the

area within the drainage basin now there

are three different types of drainage

basin first up those that collect water

and deliver it directly to the Sea so

they'll be the ones you're most familiar

with some drainage basins form parts of

much larger River drainage basins a good

example of this is the river negro which

is in South America now you'll find that

it's drainage basin forms part of the

huge drainage basin of the river Amazon

and then finally some drainage basins

don't drain to the sea or ocean instead

they drain to Inland Seas or lakes and a

good example of this is Lake Victoria in

Africa next up River discharge as we've

already mentioned that as being an

output of a drainage basin the river's

discharge is the volume of water carried

by a river at any one place so what

factors affect the river's discharge

well first of all the most obvious ones

are things like precipitation and

particularly rainfall will affect

River's discharge so remember that's the

volume of water flowing at any one

particular place obviously if it rains

more there will be a greater River

discharge second up is vegetation now if

vegetation is cut away it exposes bare

rock this reduces the time taken for the

water to be soaked up leading to an

increase in the river's discharge the

good thing about trees and other

vegetation is their presence intercepts

that rainfall usually and therefore

delays that rain reaching the ground and

has the subsequent effect of reducing

the river's discharge other fact factors

which affect the river's discharge

include soil type length and width of

river and the number of tributaries so

small rivers which join that main river

channel in terms of human activity

urbanization has a detrimental effect

and will increase River's discharge this

is because urbanization so building of

settlements increases the rate of

surface runoff and therefore decreases

the lag time this will increase the peak

in River discharge urbanization also

automatically means that vegetation will

be cut down so as I was just saying that

means that there'll be less interception

of rainfall meaning that there won't be

that delay in that water reaching the

ground so you'll end up with more

surface runoff and greater River

discharge now we'll turn our attention

to River regimes first of all let's

start with the definition of a river

regime and this is the way in which the

river's discharge changes over time

remember that the river's discharge is

the volume of water carried by a river

at any one place so we need to consider

why would that volume increase or

decrease at any particular point in time

we do also like to look at it over the

course of a year so we can make

predictions and understand more about

the behavior of river at any particular

season or point in time so if we

consider the sort of things which will

increase the river's discharge well

first of all heavy precipitation so

heavy rainfall what that means is that

the ground gets saturated very quickly

which increases surface runoff meaning

that there's a shorter lag time so that

water that falls from the sky will flow

directly into the the river so that will

influence the river regime in that way

increasing the river's discharge if we

increase the temperature so hotter days

there'll be more of AO transpiration so

that will remove water from the river

what about vegetation now some more

biotic factors well vegetations such as

trees will intercept that rainfall

meaning that there's a bit of a delay in

that rain reaching the ground so you'll

get slower infiltration of the ground

and that will increase the lifetime that

means there'll be a delay in that water

reaching the river in terms of land use

and humans activity this can actually

alter the river regime in opposing ways

so for example humans might put in

drainage channels more canals so

obviously that will take water away from

the river however urbanization generally

and I by that I mean building

settlements what that means is there's

less ground for that water to soak into

to infiltrate so in this situation

you'll end up with more surface runoff

and that water will wash into the rivers

meaning that there's a decreased lag

time so look at it from two points of

view either human behaviors which will

divert that water away into canals into

drainage channels or the fact that we're

building more concreting our surfaces

meaning that you get more surface run

off and therefore greater River

discharge and in that latter situation

you will find that that creates more of

a flashy River regime other things

humans do could include water

abstraction and that's where humans

remove water from the river for

particular uses that could be an

industry that could be to water crops so

irrigation or that could even be for

consumption purposes washing cleaning

Etc and then lastly dams again this is

something that is human built dams are

often built in order to trap water

within a reservoir and then through the

process of HP so that's hydroelectric

power these dams are used to generate

power for our homes again that will

affect the river's regime so broadly

speaking if you're asked to describe the

factors which affect River regim let's

talk about precipitation let's talk

about temperature let's talk about veget

ation land use water abstraction and

dams and break your answer up into those

various categories and provide the extra

details that I've already given you

previously in this

video a storm hydrograph graph which

shows how a River's discharge changes

over time and that's typically before

during or after a storm event why are

storm hydrographs so useful because they

provide valuable insights into the

relationship between rainfall and river

flow and that's important because lots

of people build their homes within

drainage basins and a huge amount of

time and money is spent building these

homes so storm hydrographs provide

valuable insights that enable you to

predict floods and understand how bad

those floods will be so that people can

make informed decisions about what to do

whether they can stay in their homes and

put out sandbags or whether they need to

leave but now we're going to go onto my

iPad and actually have a look more

closely at a storm hydrograph so let's

have a look at a typical storm

hydrograph so typically you'll find

three things on these graphs to the

right hand side we can see precipitation

so that tends to be rainfall and that's

given in millimet on the left hand side

we're looking at River discharge so

that's the volume of water flowing

through the river at any one particular

place and then at the bottom we have a

time scale now there are two types of

flow which affect the discharge of a

river in a storm hydrograph first of all

we have the base flow which is the

normal discharge of the river which we

can see bottom right in the baby blue

spotty section that is the river's usual

discharge with the storm flow which we

can see on the key on the left hand side

this is when you're going to see a huge

increase in the river's discharge that

tends to be in line with a huge amount

of precipitation and so we call the

storm flow the extra discharge of a

river which results from a storm so as

I've already said storm hydrographs show River

River discharge

discharge

they have a base flow which is the

river as well as a storm

flow which is the extra

discharge of a

storm now we're going to look at the

features of different storm hyd graphs

so we'll start by looking at this

portion where the bar chart is we can

see that this is the peak rainfall or Peak

Peak

precipitation as you might imagine this

is the maximum rainfall that occurs

moving over to the graph line as opposed

to the bar chart always has this

characteristic shape you can see this

push on the graph where it is steeply

increasing that gradient we call that

the rising Limb and this is the increase

of river discharge it doesn't

precipitation then you have the peak

discharge here which is the maximum

discharge remember you will see that

delay because it does take time for the

water to find its way to the river you

may also see this described as Peak

flow thing with geography is there's

thing because there is that delay

between the peak precipitation or Peak

rainfall and the peak discharge due to

that time taken for the water to flow

into the rivers we call that delay the lag

time so we've dealt with Peak rainfall

Rising limb lag time Peak discharge but

what about this falling limb we can see

that negative gradient of the graph Line

This is known as the falling limb and

what it's trying to say is that as that

storm precipitation levels decrease in

turn River discharge will decrease

because less water will be entering the rivers

and then last up base flow we can see

down here that's when the river

normal so what factors affect the shape

well firstly the amount of precipitation

or rainfall obviously the higher the

discharge next up human activities

activities

urbanization and

deforestation both

increase River discharge and that's

runoff the size of the drainage basin

will also affect the storm hydrograph

and actually you find that large

drainage basins are associated with less

discharge small drainage basins are

associated with more disch charge which

might seem a little

effect if you have an impermeable Rock

like Granite you will see more discharge

because that water's not going to soak

in if you have a permeable Rock like

Limestone you'll get less

discharge so do be prepared to compare

these various factors we can sometimes

describe these hydrograph shapes in

terms of whether they're flashy storm

hydrographs or if they're subdued storm

hydrographs so the classic shape we have

here is for a flashy storm hydrograph

we'll talk about the various

characteristics shortly if this graph

changed a little bit in shape so it was

more like this that would be what we

would call a subdued storm hydrograph

that's because we have a longer lag time

a lower Peak and a gently sloping Rising

limb as we can see here so yeah longer

lag time lower Peak discharge

Peak and a gently sloping Rising limb

and we'll talk about the reasons as to

why you get the flashy storm hydrograph

versus the subdued storm hydrograph right

now so our flashy storm hydrograph we

know we're going to have a short lag

time we'll have a high peak

discharge and a steep Rising limb so

those are all descriptions of the graph

why do we get these various features

that we see on the graph well for a

number of reasons you could have had an

intense storm or rapid snow

melt steep slopes so if we consider the

geology steep slopes mean that we'll get

lots of runoff into those Rivers small

drainage basin will

also give rise to flashy storm

hydrographs in terms of human behaviors

deforestation and urbanization will

increase surface runoff and therefore

mean that you're more likely to get a

flashy storm hydrograph so there's lots

of different factors you can talk about

shape if we look at the subdued storm

hydrograph then what do we expect to see

on the graph this time time as I've

already said you'll have a longer lag time

time

lower Peak discharge shallower Rising

limb so the reasons for that subdued

storm hydrograph will be opposite to the

ones we talked about in the flashy one

so rather than an intense storm we would

talk about steady

rainfall gentle

vegetation because remember that

vegetation will intercept that rainfall

And Delay that water reaching the rivers

so let's look at some past paper

questions we're being asked to study

Figure 1 B and identify the feature of

the storm hydrograph labeled X so here's

Figure 1 B what is X I'm hoping you can

see that that is the peak rainfall it's

the top of the bar chart next question

study Figure 1 a suggest two reasons for

the different storm hydrograph shapes

for marks so here are our storm

hydrographs I'm hoping you can see this

is a flashy storm hydrograph we've got

that shorter lag time the higher Peak

discharge the Steep Rising limb this is

a subdued storm hydrograph we've got a

much lower Peak discharge a shallower

rising Limb and a longer lag time so we

are going to State those differences and

and then give a reason for it so in the

first storm hydrograph there is a

shorter lag time and that could be due

to urbanization and

deforestation increasing surface

runoff and means less interception takes

place make sure you write a nice full

what else did we talk about we said

about the rising limb we could say in

the first storm hydrograph there is a

steeper Rising limb so we have that

flashy storm hydrograph and we said that

that could be due to there being steep

slopes which increase the rate at which

now we're moving on to fluvial processes

and really these are factors which

affect the shape and the flow of rivers

and we'll be looking at things such as

erosion weathering deposition and

transportation and unfortunately these

words do sound quite similar and you do

need to know them in lots of detail so

first of all we'll start with erosion

and really this is the we in away of

soil and rock in river banks and rivers

now there are two types of erosion

vertical and lateral so vertical as the

name suggests involves deepening the

river and this is mainly due to

hydraulic action which we'll talk about

Lots later in terms of where you find

this sort of erosion is mostly in the

upper course of the river so near its

source lateral erosion as the name

suggests involves making the river wider

and it involves eroding away at those

banks of the river this is actually more

common in the middle and lower courses

of the river so vertical erosion we'll

see towards the start of the river the

upper course that involves making the

river deeper lateral erosion makes the

river wider and it happens more in the

middle and lower courses of the river

now there are lots of different ways in

which erosion may take place some of

these include hydraulic action which

we've just mentioned attrition solution

otherwise known as corrosion and

abrasion so we'll start with hydraulic

action and look at that in a bit more

detail this is really due to the force

of the river against the river banks and

what happens is there's air that is

squashed within cracks and crevices

found within those river banks which

weakens them and fundamentally leads to

their erosion hydraulic action as we've

already mentioned is the main source of

vertical erosion so we know that that

River will get deeper as a result of

hydraulic action next up abrasion now

abrasion can be responsible for both

vertical and lateral erosion so that's

making the river deeper and wider first

of all material carried by the river SC

scrapes away at the River Bank hence how

it makes the river wider this also

loosens material in the River Bank

meaning that that is more easily Carried

Away by the river sandpaper action

widens and deepens the river and you

also may see that the river gets

undercut by rocks rubbing away at the

bank so again just to mention abrasion

is responsible for both vertical and

lateral erosion attrition now another

similar sounding word this time it's

rocks being carried by the river knock

against each other and actually cause

these rocks to break apart and become

smaller how about solution or corrosion

in this case the river water itself

dissolves minerals in the river banks

also if the water is weakly acidic it

will dissolve soluble particles and so

this is a lot more gentle but again we

can see that the river will become wider

and deeper as a result of solution SLC

corrosion so we've dealt with erosion

now but what about weathering as the

name suggests it's how different types

of weather may affect the river shape

and flow there are three types we are

going to look at today mechanical

weathering biological weathering and

chemical weathering and there is some

overlap with the chemistry specification

for some exam boards so mechanical

weathering the freeze th type of

weathering so what happens here is that

water in very cold weather freezes

within the cracks of rocks and when that

water freezes it expands pushing that

crack wider so you can imagine how lumps

of rock will break off those river banks

chemical weathering is all to do with

slightly acidic rainwater dissolving

soluble particles breaking down the rock

in a more gentle way but again this is

still a type of Destruction to the river

bank biological weathering biological

always means to do with living organisms

here it's plant roots which grow in

small cracks of the rocks and as those

roots grow bigger they widen the cracks

causing it to potentially break off bits

of rock weathering is tightly linked

with mass movement because you can

imagine as those small chunks of rocks

break off if this happens in a large

quantity this is what we call mass

movement and particularly if you have a

steep slope which we'll talk about Lots

later you'll see a huge movement of

material down those river banks there

are two types of mass movement one is

soil creep and one is slumping so

slumping occurs when the bottom of a

valley slope is worn Away by the river

flowing the slope becomes unstable and

material slumps down towards the

riverbed this is particularly

applicable after heavy rainfall you can

actually imagine how that material will

just fall off of the side of the slope

after rain after it becomes unstable

what about soil creep unlike slumping

which occurs quite rapidly soil creep as

the name suggests is a much slower

process rather than occurring on steep

slopes you'll see sore creep occur on

gentle slopes where weathered material

gathers at the bottom of the slope and

then it is eroded further by the river

now we're going to look more closely at

the factors which affect weathering and

remember Mass movement is tightly linked

with weathering because once weathering

occurs and small bits of rock break off

that means that they're more susceptible

to move as a whole so what factors

affect weathering and mass movement and

do you be prepared to explain them so

first of all weather obviously heavy

precipitation heavy rainfall will

increase the likelihood of mass movement

taking place next up the slope gradient

so the steeper the slope the more likely

mass movement will take place and you're

looking for slopes above 5° in order for

mass movement to take place

climate now hot wet climates will

encourage biological weathering because

these sorts of climates the heat that

extra water will encourage plants to

grow their Roots get in the cracks

widening the cracks increasing the

chance of biological weathering which

therefore increases the chance of mass

movement because we'll have small chunks

of rock breaking off now vegetation if

you have more vegetation holding down

the top soil and this has the KnockOn

effect of decreasing mass movement now

we consider altitude so high altitudes

you'll find colder temperatures colder

temperatures are linked with mechanical

weathering so at very cold temperatures

you more likely to find that water and

rocks will freeze causing that expansion

of the cracks meaning the bits of rock

break off so remember that's the freeze

th weathering and again that will

increase mass movement last up the

geology so we're really looking at rock

type here now very hard rocks such as

Granite are less prone to weathering

meaning that mass movement is less lik

to take place limone which is a lot more

porous it's very easily affected by acid

rain because remember that calcium

carbonate dissolves in the slightly

acidic Grain water this is going to

break down far more easily you're going

to get small chunks which break off

increasing the chance of mass movement

Transportation now transport that means

the movement of substances so really

transportation in a river setting means

how material is moved down a river there

were different ways of transportation

one is saltation one is solution and the

last two are suspension and traction so

always bear in mind what is the umbrella

term well we're talking about

Transportation so how does saltation

lead to material being moved Downstream

well you have small sand sized particles

so very tiny particles which are moved

Downstream by the river and that is

saltation suspension this is when small

particles are held within the water

itself and they're just carried

naturally Downstream traction is when

the heaviest material that's sunk to the

bottom of the river bed is R along the

riverbed and then finally solution

materials are dissolved in the water and

then carried along naturally in this way

deposition this is the laying down of

material transported by a river let's

try and think about where this is most

likely to take place so where is that

material going to be laid down well

hopefully it seems fairly

straightforward that this would occur

most likely Where the River speeds are

slower to give it time for the material

to be

deposited where there's less discharge

so less water flowing through the river

any particular point and fundamentally

where there's less energy so a good

place for this is where the river mouth

meets the sea so what sort of things we'

kind of already mentioned them but what

sort of things affect deposition so that

will be sediment size it will be the

presence of any confluences it could be

any natural barriers or blockages in the

river if there's low rainfall meaning

less discharge the gradient of the river

will affect it so obviously a shallow

gradient will mean less deposition now

we're going to look at some past paper questions

questions

State one physical factor that

influences deposition in a river so

remember deposition is the laying down

of material transported by a river you

have so many options here you could talk

about sediment size River speed gradient

the presence of any confluences if

there's a blockage or any kind of

barrier but they only want one factor so

size explain how a bra

erodes the river Channel abrasion is a

type of erosion so obviously that's

going to lead to the river being scraped

away becoming wider and deeper but we

need quite a specific answer here for

the two marks so first of all we're

going to start by stating that material

Channel you could be really specific and

river EX explain one weathering process

in a river valley so do you prefer the

freeze Thor weathering do you prefer

talking about biological weathering

which is all to do with roots growing

into small cracks or or maybe even

chemical weathering which is acidic

rainwater which breaks down some of the

Rocks so it's up to you but just pick

one and explain it properly I'm going to

go with mechanical weathering so this

occurs when water enters cracks in the rocks

cold and when it freezes and turns into

a solid it expands which

forces the cracks and The Rock wider and

off now we're going to move on to how

the characteristics of River change in

the upper middle and lower courses so

first of all let's understand the terms

long and cross profile of a river so the

long profile of a river is if you were

to take a river from its source to its

mouth and effectively you were to look

at how that River changes from the

source to its mouth in terms of the

things we've just discussed so shape

River speed sediment size discharge Etc

we'd be looking at how those things

change from the source to the river

mouth whereas the cross profile of a

river is if you were to basically cut

slices into that River so you'd end it

with just a cross-section so that could

be near the source it could be near the

mouth it could be anywhere in between so

we'd be looking at things like the width

of the river the depth of the river and

a particular Point what that sediment

size discharge and River speed is doing

so going into more detail let's look at

the upper course of the river so near

the source what would we expect to see

well we'd expect to see that the river

is deep with steep sided v-shaped

valleys you'd expect to see water tools

gorges and interlocking Spurs if you've

been near the top of a mountain you'll

notice that there's the presence of very

large Boulders very little sediment that

means that River will be nice and clear

and why is there very little sediment

well there hasn't really been enough

time for erosion to take place we looked

at that in a previous video all the ways

in which that river bank and bed is

eroded away producing those small pieces

of sediment which basically makes the

river less clear vertical erosion will

be largely dominant here and that

remember is the deepening of the river

in terms of human use you might find

hydroelectric power so dams are built

with a reservoir behind which provides a

source of energy from those turbines

linking to the generator generating

electricity there's often Hill sheet

farming forestry and it's often a good

source of Tourism and that's because the

upper course is often found in

mountainous areas and mountains make

great places for ski slopes and other

Alpine Sports as we enter the middle

course of the river we'll find that the

gradient is shallower so those slopes

will be less deep and the river is wider

we'll have increased River velocity

partly due to increased water within

that River the sediment shape will be

rounded smaller and smoother and because

some erosion has taken place you'll find

that there's sediment added to the water

so it'll be less clear Lal erosion is

the dominant type of erosion found in

the middle course of the river and that

will lead to things like meanders oxbow

lakes in terms of land use you'll often

find settlements farming and Industry in

the middle course of a river what about

the lower course of river so as we

approach the sea the mouth of the river

again you'll find that the river gets

wider that slope will become gentler

still you'll have increased River

velocity due to increased water volume

and that could be due to tributaries

adding extra water to the river you'll

have the smallest sediment found in this

portion of the river and that's known as

alium that often enters suspension

meaning that the river will be even less

clear than it was before so in terms of

how that River's Clarity and

transparency changes it will be the most

clear at the upper course and then as

you go to the the middle and lower

course it will become less clear again

we'll see lots of lateral erosion

evident which will lead to the formation

of Oxo lakes meanders and flood planes

again so do be prepared to list these

characteristics in the various parts of

the river in terms of land use you'll

definitely see lots of settlements

industry and farming in the lower course

of the river if we now summarize the

long profile in both the upper and lower

course of the river at the upper course

you'll find that the long profile is

steep and the river is narrow whereas in

the lower course of the river the long

profile is is shallow and the river is

wide and deep now remember with this

topic they could give you an Ordinance

survey map with a particular River and

ask you to identify various

characteristics in the upper lower and

middle course of the river so these are

the sorts of things you want to be

looking at remember if the contour lines

are close together that would indicate

very steep valley sides so you'd often

find that in the upper course of a river

make sure you can identify interlocking

Spurs as well as flood planes when you

see that snaking of the river remember

those would indicate meanders and you

might even notice an oxbow lake in terms

of land use be prepared to identify

towns which would indicate human

settlement any industry taking place

remember that will be more common on the

middle and lower course of a

river now we're going to look at the

formation of waterfalls Oxbow Lakes

levies River flood Plains Etc so let's

start by stating what the physical land

forms are of the upper course of the

river remember you'd expect to see

v-shaped valleys interlocking Spurs

Gorges River Rapids and waterfalls so

starting with v-shaped valleys how do

they form well they form due to vertical

erosion which acts to deepen the river

the River cuts downwards due to

hydraulic action and abrasion the river

erodes downwards you get freeze Thor

weathering which breaks off pieces of

the river bank and causes soil creep but

what about interlocking Spurs well very

similar to v-shaped valys we're going to

have vertical erosion where hydraulic

action and abrasion that River to deepen

what happens next is the River Winds and

bends in order to avoid harder Rock and

then repeated vertical erosion means

that parts of the land stick out in

order to form the interlocking Spurs

moving on to waterfalls so in order for

waterfall to form you need Hard Rock

above soft rock which means that that

soft rock below will be eroded first the

erosion undercuts the Hard Rock meaning

that you eventually you'll get an

overhang and then through vertical

erosion and hydraulic action you'll find

that a plunge pool is created which acts

to deepen the waterfall so we've dealt

with the upper course of the river what

about the middle course of the river

here you're likely to find flood Plains

oxbow lakes and meanders so remember

meanders are those characteristic

s-shaped bends in the river and they can

actually be very distinctive in places

like the Amazon but how do they form

well the river flows fastest on the

outside of the bend and flows slower on

the inside of the bend so what you find

is that on the inner Bend deposition

occurs because the river has less energy

so more sediment can be deposited on the

out to bend more erosion takes place due

to hydraulic action the river erodes and

deposits laterally remember that

meanders and oxbow lakes are very

tightly linked because eventually what

happens if erosion is such that

effectively the S on the Meander gets

cut off then you end up with an Oxo lake

so again how is an oxbow lake formed

well we're going to start by saying that

the river flows fastest on the outside

of the bend and slowest on the inside of

the bend again on the inside of the bend

deposition occurs because the river has

less energy and therefore sediment can

be deposited the outer Bend we see

erosion due to hydraulic action

eventually the bank at the start and the

end of the Meander will meet and full

flow breakthrough will provide a shorter

pathway for the river and then the ox

Lake forms due to deposition on the new

river banks now a flood plane is the

area of land directly adjacent to a

river and it's found in both the middle

and lower courses of a river a flood

plane forms when River discharge is high

and the river overflows its banks now

that river water May infiltrate the soil

leaving behind find a layer of material

which builds up to form the flood plane

moving on to the lower course of the

river so what physical features do we

find here well first will we find that

flood plane so again be prepared to

describe how that flood plane is formed

due to the High River discharge meaning

that the river overflows its banks

alivium is deposited you'll also find

levies the rivermouth delas and

potentially Islands well what is a levy

well it's natural embankments that form

by the banks of the river how are levies

formed they're created by by deposition

so when the river flows over its flood

plane the velocity of the river slows

this means that the river is unable to

hold all of the sediment contained

within it meaning that the sediment is

deposited what actually happens is the

largest sediment is deposited first and

then the smallest sediment is deposited

furthest away from the river and this is

a process known as sorting and as you

might expect this process repeats over

time meaning that eventually you get

these natural embankments known as

levies now let's look at some past paper questions

questions

explain the formation of a river

Meander so we'll start by talking about

how fast the river is Flowing on both

the outside and inside Bend remember

that the river flows fastest on the outside

Bend and then make the full comparison and

because of this on the inner band

deposition occurs due to there being

here on the outer

action now we're being asked to explain

the formation of a waterfall remember a

waterfall can only occur where there's a

band of hard rock sitting above sof a rock

overhang

unsupported moving on to uses of water

and why there shortages and surpluses

around the

world she looks so

long hi everyone um if you've been

following my science videos for a while

you know about Lyra but here she is in geography

geography

because she's going to help me with my

water quality video so broadly speaking

what factors will affect water quality

we can divide them into agricultural

ones industrial ones General human

activity deforestation which means

cutting down trees and then we'll be

looking more at Water Treatment both how

it can improve water quality but also

reduce it if not carefully managed now

to do well in your exam you'll need to

provide lots of very detailed answers so

we're going to take each of those

categories in turn so first of all how

can Agricultural and farming practices

reduced water quality well first of all

liquid slurry that's effectively animal

fees animal poo can wash into rivers and

they'll cause a phenomenon known as UT

tropication meaning that the rivers

become very lacking in oxygen and all

the aquatic organisms die but in this

way water quality is hugely affected

next up with agriculture remember

fertilizers added to soil to improve the

fertility of the soil these can also be

washed into the rivers and the

groundwater making it hugely

contaminated these are not things as

humans we want to be consuming in our

drinking water and last step

deforestation is a common agricultural

practice sorry there's a dog barking now

the reason why farmers DeForest why they

cut down trees is to provide more space

to grow crops and more space to rear

their livestock now what happens when

you cut down trees is that you have

fewer tree roots to hold down the top

soil so you get get surface runoff

meaning that more soil and silt flows

into the river reducing the water

quality now we're looking specifically

at how human activity can alter water

quality now obviously homes are full of

toilets which if the raw sewage from

those toilets is allowed to flow

directly into the river you'll really

reduce the water quality because of the

huge increase in bacteria in that water

the same is true if you have leakages

from sewage treatment plants so places

where that water is treated to make it

safe for human consumption if those

sewage treatment plants aren't carefully

managed then you can get massive leakage

which will adversely affect the water

quality of surrounding Rivers another

way in which water quality is reduced

which you might not initially think of

is the emptying of chlorinated swimming

pools remember that swimming pools have

chlorine added to them in order to kill

any bacteria present and to make them

safe for our use emptying this

chlorinated water into Rivers obviously

has a really detrimental impact on the

water quality and will affect all the

aquatic organisms that live there the

only good thing really that humans do to

improve the quality is through those

seage treatment works if carefully

managed and properly cared for they will

obviously remove all that Solid Waste

remove all the bacteria and really the

affluent from that sewage treatment

center should be really clean water so

therefore in that way the water quality

is improved next up how can industry

affect water quality well lots of

factories use cooling systems and they

use water in order to cool down their

Machinery now the output of those coing

systems is much high temperature water

which gets emptied into rivers killing

many organisms found there and generally

upsetting the river ecosystems I'm sure

you've seen lots of pictures in the news

when oil refinery spillages take place

this is an awful episode because what

happens is all the oil floods into the

rivers into the Seas

causing all those poor seabirds to get

stuck and widespread death to these

organisms and then the last industrial

process I want to talk about is the iron

refineries so this is places where iron

or gets processed in order to make pure

iron that can be used in Building

Bridges settlements Etc now you get some

really toxic chemicals getting washed

out of these processing plants into

rivers and you'll see the whole river

turn red just as a quick aside remember

the term potable water is just water

which is fit for human consumption so

what are the three main stages in

managing the supply of Clean Water Well

number one collection number two

treatment and number three delivery to

the end user where is this fresh water

collected from we've talked about this

in a previous video reservoirs lakes and

rivers aquifers and Wells once we've got

that water from these various sources

how is it treated well we briefly

mentioned ATA surage treatment plant or

at a water treatment plants so the first

step is filtration that removes any

solid bits that have entered the water

that could be as basic as stones or

Twigs then you have sedimentation which

removes suspended particles so little

pieces of sediment that make the water

cloudy and then the final step is

chlorination the adding of chlorine in

order to kill any bacteria present to

make that water safe for drinking that

water is delivered to end users quite

often along pipelines although in less

developed countries you'll often find a

stand pipe where people collect the

water in bottles and buckets so how is

the water supply managed well if we look

at reservoirs and dams remember a

reservoir is an artificial storage place

of water and it often has a dam to hold

that water back now that water will be

allowed to flow onto the pipelines which

Supply the houses as and when it is

needed so that can be very carefully

managed dirty or used water from homes

is taken to sewage treatment plants

where it goes through those treatments

we've just discussed and then it's piped

back to people's homes desalination as

the name suggests involves the removal

of salt so sometimes in some countries

such as in the Middle East they'll need

to get their drinking water from sea

waterer that sea water contains an awful

lot of salt which needs to be removed

and that is the role of the desalination

plant now we're going to be talking a

lot more in detail about the use of dams

in managing the demand and supply of

water as I've already said dams are used

to hold back Waters in Reser reservoirs

and through careful management that

water is allowed to run along pipelines

to people's homes the other great thing

about dams is it can be used for

hydroelectric power which remember is a

renewable source of energy when that

water is let out of the dams it turns

the turbine which is like a giant

windmill which turns the generator that

can be used to power people's homes

through the electricity it produces so

hydroelectric power is a fantastic

byproduct of the building of a dam and

for this reason you find lots of dams so

in Africa for example there's over 600

dams and in Europe as many as 1200 the

fact that that water is held behind the

dam in the reservoir helps to prevent

flooding further Downstream and it also

enables water to be held back for

periods of time when water levels are

naturally lower and there is a drought

and this can therefore reduce water

insecurity now the great Renaissance Dam

has huge had a huge amount of

controversy attached to it so the people

in Egypt are concerned because they have

a reduced control of that water and that

water is so important for so many of

their livelihoods so they may end up

suffering from water drought and then

the people in Sudan are concerned

because when that water is released from

the great Renaissance Dam it might

overwhelm smaller dams and rivers which

have smaller capacity and it's really

that ability of dams to control water

where Rivers cross international

boundaries means that there are

potential issues created as to who

controls the water supply now let's look

at some past paper

questions study Figure 1 a in the

resource booklet explain two ways human

activity can affect water quality so

here's Figure 1 a and let's try and zoom

in on some things which will affect the

water quality so this sewage treatment

plant down here is a good thing remember

because it processes the sewage and

ensures that that water gets purified

gets all those horrible microorganisms

removed so it's suitable for household

use the same with the water treatment up

here that will be improving the quality

of the water in the dam in terms of

reducing the water quality this house

obviously is going to be producing lots

of raw sewage from that toilet right

there it even says ra seage out so if

that gets untreated that will cause utri

fication as it enters the river and

again we've obviously talked about the

sewage treatment plant as being a good

thing but again if there are leaks we're

going to see urif foration taking place

down here as well we're going to start

by talking about the discharge of

then we'll talk about it from a positive

perspective so water treatment

facilities can process the water to

use explain One Way agriculture can

affect water

quality I've already touched on it

before we could talk about ocation we

could talk about anything to do with

deforestation remember that's cutting

down trees to provide more space to grow

crops or for livestock if we were to

talk about livestock we could

potentially talk about cattle waste and

that leeching into the rivers again

contaminating the water as that will

increase the bacterial load lots and

lots of options here I'm going to talk

about the ufic answer so liquid

slurry that's really the

can leech into the river so wash into the

the

river and because of all those extra

nitrates that it contains it causes the

algal blo which is

ocation and that KnockOn result remember

is that you end up with the river being

starved of oxygen so all the aquatic

first of all why is flooding such a

problem well flooding causes damages to

people's home General infrastructure

people's businesses their factories as

well as Communications you

on she's look she loves me really so

what physical factors affect flooding a

level of precipitation or rainfall the

density of the river Network as well as

its gradient if there's any existing

saturation of the soil from previous

flood events that will increase the

likelihood of flooding the time of year

and any seasonal changes so when there's

been a lot of snowfall and then the

temperature increases you'll get a snow

melt which will increase the chance of

flooding due to an increase in the

river's discharge and steepness of

slopes so the relief of the land the

steeper the slope The increased chance

of runoff and increased chance of

flooding what human factors affect the

risk of flooding well firstly the

population distribution and density

various land use flood management

strategies so if you've got hard

engineering structures in place such as

flood walls that will decrease the

chance of flooding embankments allowing

salt marsh regeneration again this will

reduce the chance flooding and we'll

look at this in great detail in another

video when you've got increased

urbanization so people building houses

you're going to have increased surface

runoff because firstly you'll have less

interception by vegetation quite simply

because that vegetation has been removed

in order to create more land to build

settlements because building settlements

involves an awful lot of concreting

Paving pulling down roads again you'll

see increased surface runoff here and

this increases the chance of flash

floods if you asked for quite a long

answer an exam question with like eight

marks asking you to analyze the reasons

why different areas are differently

susceptible to flood risk we're going to

look at both a combination of physical

and human factors so we want to be

looking at you know whether urbanization

has taken place if deforestation has

occurred increased concreting and Paving

which leads to increased surface runoff

leading to more flashy River regimes

meaning increased flood risk we want to

look at the presence of any fledge

management strategies so that seaw walls

salt marshes managed Retreats Etc any

changes to weather or time of year so as

we said increased snow melt or increased

precipitation what about the relief of

the land so these are all factors you

want to be looking at in that vsource

booklet because obviously the case study

will vary from year to year they could

ask you in slightly different ways but

these are the sorts of things you want

to be looking

at now we're going to be looking at

flood prevention strategies so broadly

speaking that will be divided into hard

engineering and soft engineering

strategies hard engineering strategies

involves building artificial structures

which try to control the rivers and help

prevent flooding in this way such as the

building of seaw walls the hard

engineering strategies tend to be more

more expensive and they need an awful

lot of Maintenance soft engineering

strategies do not involve the building

of artificial structures they take a

more sustainable and natural approach to

preventing River flooding that could

involve encouraging Wetland development

I'm now going to describe the various

hard and soft engineering strategies in

much more detail so starting with hard

engineering strategies we'll be looking

at the relative advantages and

disadvantages so starting with dams and

reservoirs now the good thing about

these is that water can be controlled

and also it provides a good source of

renewable energy in the form of HP

hydroelectric power the problem with

dams and reservoirs is they are very

expensive and I have touched on this

previously where Rivers cross

international boundaries you're going to

have a lot of conflict in terms of who's

controlling that water supply and it

could lead to a great deal of water

insecurity for countries which are

Downstream of those dams the building of

such dams and reservoirs also leads to a

huge amount of damage to eco systems and

loss of biodiversity as deforestation

occurs flood embankments in seaw walls

hold back the flood water and prevent

damage to farmland and settlements they

are very expensive and again they will

adversely affect ecosystems and need to

deforestation there is the potential to

increase the height of the seaw walls as

sea levels change and clearly these will

save lives help prevent damage to

settlements and they are a very

effective way of preventing flooding

although at the beginning there's just a

one-off cost they will need mainten M

because in 100 years for example these

sea walls will probably have been breached and therefore they'll need to

breached and therefore they'll need to be rebuilt the next hard engineering

be rebuilt the next hard engineering strategy I want to talk about is River

strategy I want to talk about is River straightening and River dredging so

straightening and River dredging so straightening the river increases the

straightening the river increases the speed of the river meaning that it can

speed of the river meaning that it can effectively hold more water which is

effectively hold more water which is good when you see increased River

good when you see increased River discharge which may lead to flash floods

discharge which may lead to flash floods and dredging means removing lots of

and dredging means removing lots of sediment any waste that's enter the

sediment any waste that's enter the river again meaning that the river can

river again meaning that the river can hold more water so through straightening

hold more water so through straightening and drudging we'll see the river can

and drudging we'll see the river can hold more water therefore helping to

hold more water therefore helping to prevent floods meaning that less damage

prevent floods meaning that less damage occurs to people's homes and it means

occurs to people's homes and it means that people's lives less at risk in

that people's lives less at risk in terms of disadvantages that River

terms of disadvantages that River dredging does need to be done fairly

dredging does need to be done fairly frequently so there's a cost in Cur with

frequently so there's a cost in Cur with that and River straightening because

that and River straightening because that increases the speed of the river it

that increases the speed of the river it may actually increase flood risk further

may actually increase flood risk further Downstream turning our attention to

Downstream turning our attention to flood relief channels this is when river

flood relief channels this is when river water flows into smaller channels where

water flows into smaller channels where it can re-enter the river further

it can re-enter the river further Downstream by removing this excess water

Downstream by removing this excess water it reduces the chance of flooding and

it reduces the chance of flooding and all the disadvantages that come with

all the disadvantages that come with that however this approach is quite

that however this approach is quite expensive to build and if water levels

expensive to build and if water levels continue to rise then these River

continue to rise then these River channels may also flood moving on to

channels may also flood moving on to soft engineering approaches this

soft engineering approaches this includes flood warnings and preparation

includes flood warnings and preparation flood control schemes and flood plain

flood control schemes and flood plain zoning so flood warnings and preparation

zoning so flood warnings and preparation in this case the environmental agency

in this case the environmental agency monitors rainfall looks at the chance of

monitors rainfall looks at the chance of floods and issues warnings either across

floods and issues warnings either across the TV or radio telling people when

the TV or radio telling people when floods are most likely to occur so

floods are most likely to occur so people can be warned and leave if needs

people can be warned and leave if needs be or put any necessary precautions in

be or put any necessary precautions in place this could simply mean using

place this could simply mean using sandbags to protect their properties

sandbags to protect their properties meaning that their possessions are saved

meaning that their possessions are saved and fewer insurance claims are made

and fewer insurance claims are made there are quite a few disadvantages with

there are quite a few disadvantages with this approach however firstly those

this approach however firstly those flood warnings may not occur quickly

flood warnings may not occur quickly enough people may not hear them secondly

enough people may not hear them secondly it doesn't actually stop any of the

it doesn't actually stop any of the flooding so although people's lives will

flooding so although people's lives will definitely be saved if the flooding is

definitely be saved if the flooding is such that people's homes still get

such that people's homes still get damaged then obviously this isn't a

damaged then obviously this isn't a sufficient method flood plane zoning

sufficient method flood plane zoning involves using flood planes for very

involves using flood planes for very particular land uses and therefore

particular land uses and therefore restricting the building of houses and

restricting the building of houses and factories in these areas which are more

factories in these areas which are more susceptible to flooding so more

susceptible to flooding so more expensive buildings are built further

expensive buildings are built further away from the river in areas less likely

away from the river in areas less likely to flood and this obviously reduces

to flood and this obviously reduces damages to these types of buildings but

damages to these types of buildings but remember it's not always possible to

remember it's not always possible to change existing land uses and people

change existing land uses and people will still will be inclined to build

will still will be inclined to build there and buy their homes there so it's

there and buy their homes there so it's very important that you check whether

very important that you check whether your house that you're planning on

your house that you're planning on buying is built on a place that's likely

buying is built on a place that's likely to flood because in that case it should

to flood because in that case it should be avoided at all costs flood control

be avoided at all costs flood control schemes encourages the development of

schemes encourages the development of wetlands and marshes because these act

wetlands and marshes because these act as great temporary stores of water

as great temporary stores of water they're very natural and sustainable

they're very natural and sustainable approach and encourage wide biod

approach and encourage wide biod diversity increased speciation it's nice

diversity increased speciation it's nice and cheap but as with all things it's

and cheap but as with all things it's not always possible I think it's because

not always possible I think it's because it's cold ah please don't you're going

it's cold ah please don't you're going to tear a hole in my

to tear a hole in my leggings she's growling because she

leggings she's growling because she hates it when she's moved but I can't

hates it when she's moved but I can't just sit in front of the camera all day

just sit in front of the camera all day you can find you a warm place to sit you

you can find you a warm place to sit you know study Figure 1 a in the resource

know study Figure 1 a in the resource booklet explain one advantage and one

booklet explain one advantage and one disadvantage of the flood prevention

disadvantage of the flood prevention measures shown so we have details about

measures shown so we have details about flood prevention measure in York in the

flood prevention measure in York in the UK so have a look at what we have here

UK so have a look at what we have here definitely use the key look we have

definitely use the key look we have flood walls and Gates and we have a

flood walls and Gates and we have a flood embankment so what's good about

flood embankment so what's good about the flood walls well obviously they're

the flood walls well obviously they're going to reduce the level of damage

going to reduce the level of damage caused by the floods which could save

caused by the floods which could save people's lives particularly in the

people's lives particularly in the people living around SB Terrace real

people living around SB Terrace real disadvantages with flood WS though

disadvantages with flood WS though remember these are hard engineering

remember these are hard engineering strategies they're very expensive

strategies they're very expensive because of the huge amount of work that

because of the huge amount of work that goes into removing those trees which

goes into removing those trees which they've already mentioned here to build

they've already mentioned here to build new flood defenses 14 trees must be

new flood defenses 14 trees must be removed so from an environment Al point

removed so from an environment Al point of view that's terrible because that

of view that's terrible because that destroys habitats for wildlife and it's

destroys habitats for wildlife and it's something that we'll need maintaining so

something that we'll need maintaining so for an example in 100 years it's

for an example in 100 years it's unlikely those flood walls will still be

unlikely those flood walls will still be here so we're going to start with the

here so we're going to start with the advantage which is that flood

lives disadvantage trees need

removing to allow flood walls to be built this

habitats Now we move on to wave action so starting with the term fetch this is

so starting with the term fetch this is the length of water the wind blows over

the length of water the wind blows over if we consider the factors which

if we consider the factors which influence the size of the Waves first of

influence the size of the Waves first of all the strength of the wind the

all the strength of the wind the stronger the wind the bigger the wave

stronger the wind the bigger the wave the time frame that that wind is blowing

the time frame that that wind is blowing over the longer the wind blows for the

over the longer the wind blows for the bigger the wave and then lastly the

bigger the wave and then lastly the fetch size because obviously the longer

fetch size because obviously the longer the length of water that wind blows over

the length of water that wind blows over the bigger the waves formed the

the bigger the waves formed the prevailing wind is the dominant

prevailing wind is the dominant Direction the wind is blowing across so

Direction the wind is blowing across so in England the Southwest coast

in England the Southwest coast prevailing wind comes from a Southwest

prevailing wind comes from a Southwest Direction which means it blows over the

Direction which means it blows over the length of the Atlantic Ocean so how do

length of the Atlantic Ocean so how do those waves form out at Sea the wind

those waves form out at Sea the wind tugs at the surface of the water causing

tugs at the surface of the water causing the wave shape to move within a wave

the wave shape to move within a wave water moves in a a circular motion when

water moves in a a circular motion when a wave moves into shallower water

a wave moves into shallower water friction causes the waves to slow at the

friction causes the waves to slow at the base and then friction causes the wave

base and then friction causes the wave to break at the top because the wave is

to break at the top because the wave is traveling faster here and then as waves

traveling faster here and then as waves break onto the shore this is known as a

break onto the shore this is known as a swash the beach will absorb the energy

swash the beach will absorb the energy of the wave and then the water will

of the wave and then the water will drain back to Sea and this is known as

drain back to Sea and this is known as the back wash there are two types of

the back wash there are two types of wave you need to know about both

wave you need to know about both constructive and destructive now first

constructive and destructive now first of all a constructive wave has a long

of all a constructive wave has a long wavelength a strong SW wash and a weak

wavelength a strong SW wash and a weak back wash and this helps to build up a

back wash and this helps to build up a beach constructive waves can reduce the

beach constructive waves can reduce the gradient of a beach because they have

gradient of a beach because they have such a strong swash and a weak back wash

such a strong swash and a weak back wash therefore material gets deposited on the

therefore material gets deposited on the beach therefore reducing its gradient in

beach therefore reducing its gradient in comparison a destructive wave has a

comparison a destructive wave has a short wavelength a strong back wash and

short wavelength a strong back wash and a weak swash and as you can imagine that

a weak swash and as you can imagine that will cause Beach material to be moved

will cause Beach material to be moved back down to the Sea and fundamentally a

back down to the Sea and fundamentally a destructive wave will erode a

destructive wave will erode a beach let's move on to Coastal

beach let's move on to Coastal weathering what is weathering it's the

weathering what is weathering it's the breakdown of rocks in situ or close to

breakdown of rocks in situ or close to the Earth's surface there's several

the Earth's surface there's several different types you need to know about

different types you need to know about mechanical chemical and biological

mechanical chemical and biological mechanical weathering is the physical

mechanical weathering is the physical breakdown of rocks due to the

breakdown of rocks due to the environment there's several different

environment there's several different types the one you're probably most

types the one you're probably most familiar with is the freeze Thor model

familiar with is the freeze Thor model of weathering so what happens is that

of weathering so what happens is that water gets into cracks and then as the

water gets into cracks and then as the temperatures drop the water freezes the

temperatures drop the water freezes the frozen water expands causing cracks in

frozen water expands causing cracks in the Rock to become wider and chunks of

the Rock to become wider and chunks of rock break off there's also onion skin

rock break off there's also onion skin weathering this is when the outer layer

weathering this is when the outer layer of the rock peels off you to extreme

of the rock peels off you to extreme variations in temperature the wetting

variations in temperature the wetting and drying model of weathering is most

and drying model of weathering is most commonly found in coasts where there's

commonly found in coasts where there's an awful lot of clay so what happens

an awful lot of clay so what happens when the clay is wet is that it expands

when the clay is wet is that it expands when it's dry it contracts and this kind

when it's dry it contracts and this kind of frequent expanding and Contracting

of frequent expanding and Contracting enlarges cracks in the Rock and makes

enlarges cracks in the Rock and makes them more susceptible to other

them more susceptible to other weathering types such as freeze Thor

weathering types such as freeze Thor next next up what is mass movement mass

next next up what is mass movement mass movement is the downward movement of

movement is the downward movement of sediment due to gravity and there's lots

sediment due to gravity and there's lots of different types of mass movement

of different types of mass movement starting with Rock full as the name

starting with Rock full as the name suggests this is when bits of rock fall

suggests this is when bits of rock fall off the cliff often used to freeze Thor

off the cliff often used to freeze Thor weathering then you have mud slides

weathering then you have mud slides mudslides involve saturated soil so soil

mudslides involve saturated soil so soil which is filled with water sliding down

which is filled with water sliding down the slope landslides is when large

the slope landslides is when large chunks of rock slide downhill slumping

chunks of rock slide downhill slumping is when a whole segment of Cliff moves

is when a whole segment of Cliff moves down slope along a SAT saturated Shear

down slope along a SAT saturated Shear plane rotational slip is when saturated

plane rotational slip is when saturated soil slumps down a curved

soil slumps down a curved surface now we're going to talk about

surface now we're going to talk about Coastal erosion transportation and

Coastal erosion transportation and deposition now there's a lot of

deposition now there's a lot of different erosion types you need to be

different erosion types you need to be aware of we'll be looking at hydraulic

aware of we'll be looking at hydraulic action abrasion attrition and corrosion

action abrasion attrition and corrosion otherwise known as solution so starting

otherwise known as solution so starting with abrasion this is when broken

with abrasion this is when broken fragments of rock are held against the

fragments of rock are held against the cliff by wave action causing bits of

cliff by wave action causing bits of Rock to be eroded off the face of the

Rock to be eroded off the face of the cliff in a sandpaper-like action

cliff in a sandpaper-like action hydraulic action is when waves hit the

hydraulic action is when waves hit the cliff and wash and air goes into cracks

cliff and wash and air goes into cracks as the water Retreats the air expands

as the water Retreats the air expands causing those cracks to enlarge

causing those cracks to enlarge corrosion or solution is the chemical

corrosion or solution is the chemical action of the waves on the Rock because

action of the waves on the Rock because that sea water contains salt the salt

that sea water contains salt the salt slowly erodes the cliff and the material

slowly erodes the cliff and the material is Carried Away In Waves attrition is

is Carried Away In Waves attrition is when particles carried by the waves

when particles carried by the waves crash against each other and get smaller

crash against each other and get smaller through wave action in this way the

through wave action in this way the particles become smaller and rounder so

particles become smaller and rounder so that's everything you need on erosion

that's everything you need on erosion but what about deposition deposition is

but what about deposition deposition is is when the waves crash against the

is when the waves crash against the beach and the sea water loses energy

beach and the sea water loses energy this leads to the depositing of

this leads to the depositing of particles sediment Pebbles sand Etc in

particles sediment Pebbles sand Etc in order for deposition to take place you

order for deposition to take place you need to have a stronger swash compared

need to have a stronger swash compared with back wash because otherwise the

with back wash because otherwise the back wash will remove all that material

back wash will remove all that material back to Sea transportation is the

back to Sea transportation is the movement of material by the Sea and

movement of material by the Sea and along the coast by

waves so traction involves large pebles and

pebles and boulders are rolled along the seabed

boulders are rolled along the seabed saltation involves small

stones and Pebbles are bounced along the seabed

Pebbles are bounced along the seabed gosh these all sound very similar

dissolved Rock and now we're going to talk more

Rock and now we're going to talk more about Longshore drift so what is

about Longshore drift so what is Longshore drift well if we were to

Longshore drift well if we were to Define it we'd say it's the

Define it we'd say it's the transportation of sediments along the

transportation of sediments along the coast in a zigzag like pattern but how

coast in a zigzag like pattern but how does Longshore drift come about because

does Longshore drift come about because obviously it doesn't happen at every

obviously it doesn't happen at every single Coastline well first of all you

single Coastline well first of all you need the prevailing so that's the

need the prevailing so that's the dominant wind blowing at an angle to the

dominant wind blowing at an angle to the coast because the prevailing wind is at

coast because the prevailing wind is at an angle the waves swash deposits

an angle the waves swash deposits material at an angle on the beach and

material at an angle on the beach and then if you think about which direction

then if you think about which direction the backwash will be happening in it'll

the backwash will be happening in it'll be occurring perpendicular to the beach

be occurring perpendicular to the beach due to the action of gravity so whereas

due to the action of gravity so whereas that material is being deposited at an

that material is being deposited at an angle in terms of the backwash it will

angle in terms of the backwash it will be occurring perpendicular so in a

be occurring perpendicular so in a straight line hence you can see that

straight line hence you can see that zigzag pattern building up what sort of

zigzag pattern building up what sort of factors will affect Coastal

factors will affect Coastal environments please

lra first of all rock type the harder the rock the less erosion that takes

the rock the less erosion that takes place so the higher the cliffs formed

place so the higher the cliffs formed the type of rock will also influence the

the type of rock will also influence the amount of weathering that can take place

amount of weathering that can take place whether that's freeze Thor weathering

whether that's freeze Thor weathering biological weathering and as a result

biological weathering and as a result the type of erosional processes that

the type of erosional processes that occur so whether caves are formed

occur so whether caves are formed Headlands Stacks stumps Etc human

Headlands Stacks stumps Etc human activity will also have a huge role to

activity will also have a huge role to play humans will often choose to build

play humans will often choose to build settlements in lowline Coastline as well

settlements in lowline Coastline as well as more tourism and leisure-based

as more tourism and leisure-based activities which are commonly found in

activities which are commonly found in very beautiful parts of the coast humans

very beautiful parts of the coast humans may also employ soft and hard

may also employ soft and hard engineering strategies which will cause

engineering strategies which will cause massive changes to the coastline hard

massive changes to the coastline hard engineering strategies include things

engineering strategies include things like groins and seaw walls which help

like groins and seaw walls which help prevent erosion soft engineering

prevent erosion soft engineering strategies include the replenishment of

strategies include the replenishment of beaches if there's a huge number of fish

beaches if there's a huge number of fish in the sea fish fishing practices will

in the sea fish fishing practices will become important any fishing boats going

become important any fishing boats going out if there are oil spills or even

out if there are oil spills or even larger ships they will have an adverse

larger ships they will have an adverse effect on the environment particularly

effect on the environment particularly coral reef

coral reef ecosystems rising sea levels will

ecosystems rising sea levels will influence Coastal land forms because

influence Coastal land forms because obviously with the burning of fossil

obviously with the burning of fossil fuels so the increase in the amount of

fuels so the increase in the amount of CO2 being released as well as methane

CO2 being released as well as methane from farming cows this will all lead to

from farming cows this will all lead to polar ice caps melting rising sea levels

polar ice caps melting rising sea levels and that may lead to flooding of

and that may lead to flooding of low-lying land vegetation may also

low-lying land vegetation may also influence Coastal landforms so we tend

influence Coastal landforms so we tend to think of vegetation as a good thing

to think of vegetation as a good thing because the roots stabilize the slopes

because the roots stabilize the slopes but equally with increased number of

but equally with increased number of roots comes an increased chance of

roots comes an increased chance of biological weathering because remember

biological weathering because remember those roots get into cracks in the Rocks

those roots get into cracks in the Rocks they expand the cracks and mean that

they expand the cracks and mean that some of that rock may break off and

some of that rock may break off and fall hi everyone I'm now moving on to

fall hi everyone I'm now moving on to the role of erosional processes in the

the role of erosional processes in the formation of landforms so basically what

formation of landforms so basically what this video is about is how do Headlands

this video is about is how do Headlands Cliffs wave cut platforms Stacks arches

Cliffs wave cut platforms Stacks arches caves stumps or form I hope I remembered

caves stumps or form I hope I remembered all of those so let's start with a

all of those so let's start with a headland well a headland forms where you

headland well a headland forms where you have discordant Coastline you need

have discordant Coastline you need layers of soft and hard rock which run

layers of soft and hard rock which run at right angles to the sea that soft

at right angles to the sea that soft rock erodes first due to both hydraulic

rock erodes first due to both hydraulic action and abrasion and then you get the

action and abrasion and then you get the formation of that Headland together with

formation of that Headland together with a bay but what about a wave cut platform

a bay but what about a wave cut platform well as the name suggests you're going

well as the name suggests you're going to end up with a notch at the base of a

to end up with a notch at the base of a cliff so the waves Pound The Cliff

cliff so the waves Pound The Cliff between the low water mark and the high

between the low water mark and the high water mark creating a notch now

water mark creating a notch now hydraulic action and abrasion will

hydraulic action and abrasion will deepen that Notch so you end up with

deepen that Notch so you end up with this kind of overhang that overhang is

this kind of overhang that overhang is unsupported so it eventually collapses

unsupported so it eventually collapses producing a huge amount of debris on the

producing a huge amount of debris on the base of the cliff and through the action

base of the cliff and through the action of the waves that will remove that Deb

of the waves that will remove that Deb over time meaning that the cliff will

over time meaning that the cliff will Retreat and at low tide you'll see that

Retreat and at low tide you'll see that wake up platform from being exposed as

wake up platform from being exposed as that water Retreats now the cliff is

that water Retreats now the cliff is further altered in its shape by the

further altered in its shape by the action of weathering that could be

action of weathering that could be mechanical weathering so freeze for

mechanical weathering so freeze for weathering where water gets into cracks

weathering where water gets into cracks in the cliff freezes expands causing

in the cliff freezes expands causing chunks of that rock to break off it

chunks of that rock to break off it could be chemical weathering so that's

could be chemical weathering so that's really the action of acid rain

really the action of acid rain biological weathering is when those

biological weathering is when those plant roots get into cracks and they

plant roots get into cracks and they cause those cracks to widen and again

cause those cracks to widen and again those Rock bits will fall off further

those Rock bits will fall off further eroding the cliff so the ways in which a

eroding the cliff so the ways in which a wave cup platform and cliffs are

wave cup platform and cliffs are produced are very tightly linked now

produced are very tightly linked now let's talk about the formation of caves

let's talk about the formation of caves so first of all let's think about the

so first of all let's think about the Headlands now the Headland receives an

Headlands now the Headland receives an awful lot of the wave's energy because

awful lot of the wave's energy because of the way in which that Headland juts

of the way in which that Headland juts out to sea so the wave pounds away with

out to sea so the wave pounds away with hydraulic action abrasion due to any

hydraulic action abrasion due to any Pebbles and rocks being carried by the

Pebbles and rocks being carried by the waves and that attacks any cracks in the

waves and that attacks any cracks in the Headland So eventually those cracks

Headland So eventually those cracks widen and deepen forming a cave now when

widen and deepen forming a cave now when that eventually breaks through that's

that eventually breaks through that's when an Archer is formed so that's when

when an Archer is formed so that's when you can see the light all the way

you can see the light all the way through that cave so you'll create this

through that cave so you'll create this huge Arch now the roof of that Arch is

huge Arch now the roof of that Arch is unsupported So eventually it collapses

unsupported So eventually it collapses forming a long pillar of rock known as

forming a long pillar of rock known as the stack and as that further erods a

the stack and as that further erods a stump will be

stump will be formed now I'm going to describe how

formed now I'm going to describe how various depositional land forms are

various depositional land forms are formed so starting with Beach formation

formed so starting with Beach formation so in order to build up a beach you need

so in order to build up a beach you need low long constructive waves because they

low long constructive waves because they have a strong wash and a weak back wash

have a strong wash and a weak back wash this means that sediment gets deposited

this means that sediment gets deposited on the beach but isn't actually washed

on the beach but isn't actually washed away afterwards moving onto a spit now

away afterwards moving onto a spit now hi you're never here now we'll move on

hi you're never here now we'll move on to how a spit is formed so in order for

to how a spit is formed so in order for a spit to be formed you need sediment to

a spit to be formed you need sediment to be moved along the coastline by

be moved along the coastline by Longshore drift in the direction of a

Longshore drift in the direction of a strong prevailing wind that sediment

strong prevailing wind that sediment gets deposited if there are low long

gets deposited if there are low long constructive waves because remember they

constructive waves because remember they have a strong swash and a weak back wash

have a strong swash and a weak back wash now as the coastline changes Direction

now as the coastline changes Direction the sediment continues to be deposited

the sediment continues to be deposited so that's how a spit forms now if that

so that's how a spit forms now if that spit joins a headland we form what's

spit joins a headland we form what's known as a sandbar and then if there's a

known as a sandbar and then if there's a small river running behind that sandbar

small river running behind that sandbar you get a lagoon and slapt and lay in

you get a lagoon and slapt and lay in Devon is a good example of a lagoon

Devon is a good example of a lagoon behind a sambar

distributions and features of coral reef ecosystems and

mangroves we'll start with coral reaf ecosystems so what is commonly found

ecosystems so what is commonly found what are the features of coral wreath

what are the features of coral wreath ecosystems well they're made up of

ecosystems well they're made up of things called Coral polyps which don't

things called Coral polyps which don't worry too much about whether you know

worry too much about whether you know that word but it kind of doesn't make

that word but it kind of doesn't make sense without it but the point about

sense without it but the point about coral polyps is that they're tiny

coral polyps is that they're tiny animals which

animals which contain algae which is a type of

contain algae which is a type of plant they make calcium carbonate so

plant they make calcium carbonate so that's a feature that you'll need to

that's a feature that you'll need to provide in the

provide in the exam that coral reef ecos systems

exam that coral reef ecos systems contain a lot of calcium carbonate

contain a lot of calcium carbonate that's Limestone and that's actually

that's Limestone and that's actually what makes them so hard commonly found

what makes them so hard commonly found in coral reefs is high levels of

in coral reefs is high levels of biodiversity so that's the variety of

biodiversity so that's the variety of animals and plants found there and that

animals and plants found there and that they're home to lots of small

they're home to lots of small fish so if you've seen Finding Nemo

fish so if you've seen Finding Nemo clown fish for

example moving on to what factors that affect the distribution of

factors that affect the distribution of coral reefs

number one you need a very specific temperature range so you need a minimum

temperature range so you need a minimum of

of 18° C in order for that coral reef to

18° C in order for that coral reef to survive the optimum temperature is

survive the optimum temperature is actually 25 it's worth learning that

actually 25 it's worth learning that number in terms of water

number in terms of water depth you need quite shallow Seas so

depth you need quite shallow Seas so less than 25 M

less than 25 M deep and why is that because allows

deep and why is that because allows sunlight to

sunlight to penetrate and it's that sunlight that

penetrate and it's that sunlight that the algae use in their

photosynthesis in terms of pH and this is why global warming is such a concern

is why global warming is such a concern because it's actually reducing the pH of

because it's actually reducing the pH of the Seas corals require quite an

the Seas corals require quite an alkaline pH so a pH of between 8 and

alkaline pH so a pH of between 8 and 8.5 to grow

we need salinities that means salty water IE seas and

oceans so if we were looking at positive factors which affect the distribution of

factors which affect the distribution of coral wavs what do they need this is a

coral wavs what do they need this is a specific temperature water depth pH

specific temperature water depth pH salinity but what are the adverse

salinity but what are the adverse effects which will actually reduce the

effects which will actually reduce the distribution of coral reef ecosystems

distribution of coral reef ecosystems well as you might expect its human

well as you might expect its human behaviors

so human behaviors that damage coral

damage coral reefs and limit their

reefs and limit their distribution I've already touched on

distribution I've already touched on one burning fossil

Coral bleaching takes place that's when all those polyps are

place that's when all those polyps are released and effectively the coral reef

released and effectively the coral reef dies and then just general damage by

dies and then just general damage by tourist activity or

pollution so what are the features of mangra ecosystems well first of all

mangra ecosystems well first of all you'll find that they are trees which

you'll find that they are trees which effectively have one foot in the sea one

effectively have one foot in the sea one foot on land so they're trees which

foot on land so they're trees which live on the

coastline you'll find Shallow Water there which will definitely influence

there which will definitely influence their distribution so that shallow water

their distribution so that shallow water needs to be between

needs to be between 0.5 and 2.5 M

0.5 and 2.5 M deep you have very characteristic

deep you have very characteristic Tangled roots

Tangled roots and they grow above ground to form

and they grow above ground to form things called

thickets the roots are extremely characteristic of mangroves you'll also

characteristic of mangroves you'll also have snorkel like roots that stick into

have snorkel like roots that stick into the air and butrous style Roots which

the air and butrous style Roots which provide support also common to mangroves

provide support also common to mangroves are high

are high humidity and high temperatures and I'll

humidity and high temperatures and I'll talk about those exact values when we

talk about those exact values when we look at the distribution of

mangroves so what factors affect the distribution of Mangrove

rainfall mangroves require a high level of rainfall

that's anywhere between, 1500 and 3,000 mm per year they need a high

3,000 mm per year they need a high temperature otherwise the mango treeses

temperature otherwise the mango treeses won't

grow terms of water depth again we need shallow water

depth again we need shallow water between 0.5 to 2.5 M deep obviously the

between 0.5 to 2.5 M deep obviously the low and high tide will affect that and

low and high tide will affect that and they can survive the ranges but on the

they can survive the ranges but on the whole Z .5 to 2.5 M they need high

whole Z .5 to 2.5 M they need high levels of humidity between

levels of humidity between 75% and 80% humidity so it's making it

75% and 80% humidity so it's making it quite an unpleasant place for us to

quite an unpleasant place for us to visit really if you think about this

visit really if you think about this lots of rain high humidity unlike the

lots of rain high humidity unlike the coral we ecosystem mangroves require

coral we ecosystem mangroves require salinity so salty water

as with coral reef ecosystems human behavior can affect the

behavior can affect the distribution of

mangroves so that includes deforestation so cutting down of those mangrove trees

so cutting down of those mangrove trees and humans use that for Timber and

and humans use that for Timber and building

building [Music]

material you also find that mangroves are commonly removed in order to make

are commonly removed in order to make space for aquaculture so such as shrimp

farming you find that over fishing causes damage to

mangroves and application of pesticides on Farmland may wash into

pesticides on Farmland may wash into mangroves causing further damage

distribution of sand Junes and salt marshes so starting with

marshes so starting with sandunes so what are the features of

sandunes so what are the features of sand Junes well you'd expect them to be

sand Junes well you'd expect them to be made from blown in Sand maram

made from blown in Sand maram Grass is a special type of vegetation

Grass is a special type of vegetation very common Sun Junes they have an

very common Sun Junes they have an undulating

undulating shape think about the Sahara Desert how

shape think about the Sahara Desert how much those Sun Junes go up and down and

much those Sun Junes go up and down and they're

they're fragile so they are easily

fragile so they are easily eroded particularly by high

eroded particularly by high winds what factors affect the

winds what factors affect the distribution of San

Junes first up a wide beach with large quantities of sand is

beach with large quantities of sand is needed in order for a sand Gene to

form so the prevailing wind needs to be onshore that means blowing from the sea

onshore that means blowing from the sea to the

to the shore and that's kind of obvious if you

shore and that's kind of obvious if you think about the fact that that sun needs

think about the fact that that sun needs to build up on the beach and you need

to build up on the beach and you need suitable locations for the sun to build

up first up you need the beach to dry out at low

tide there's that all important onshore prevailing wind again

and that causes the sand to build up commonly around

obstacles you will get over time the sand

sand accumulating leading to the sand June

accumulating leading to the sand June building up in

size you get lots of mini Sun Junes building up because they get protection

building up because they get protection from the original

from the original sanun so another sanun builds up on the

sanun so another sanun builds up on the seawood side so facing the

sea and then vegetation such as the maram grass the roots of that grass will

maram grass the roots of that grass will help fix down the sand

now Sunan Junes are quite extreme places for this vegetation so sanun

for this vegetation so sanun vegetation needs to be able to cope with

vegetation needs to be able to cope with some quite extreme conditions including

some quite extreme conditions including salty conditions so

salinity a lack of moisture due to the sand June drying out

moisture due to the sand June drying out quickly

high winds and the fact that it's often the vegetation is often submerged by the

the vegetation is often submerged by the wind blown sand so maram grass is

wind blown sand so maram grass is extremely specialized to be able to cope

extremely specialized to be able to cope with these tough

with these tough conditions moving on to Salt marshes

the salt marsh is an area of Coast that is flooded and drained by salt

tides and the salt marsh forms behind a spit when water movement slows down so

spit when water movement slows down so more material is deposited

distribution salt marsh formation is encouraged in places where there is

encouraged in places where there is protection from wind

you need partly salty water and you need water regularly flooded by

water regularly flooded by Tides a large expanse of mud flat is

Tides a large expanse of mud flat is also

also required so to really point out the

required so to really point out the features of a salt marsh quite

features of a salt marsh quite repetitive but you need that large

repetitive but you need that large expanse of mud flat slow moving

expanse of mud flat slow moving water salt tolerant vegetation

water salt tolerant vegetation plants which may include

plants which may include grasses weeds and

rushes there's often Pete which comprises of decomposing

vegetation partly salty water and water regularly flooded by

water and water regularly flooded by tide

and remember salt marshes provide a really nice ecosystem for a lot of

birds now we're considering abiotic and biotic factors that affect Coastal

biotic factors that affect Coastal ecosystems biotic remember the word

ecosystems biotic remember the word biology they're tightly linked so that

biology they're tightly linked so that means living factors which affect

means living factors which affect Coastal

Coastal ecosystems whereas abiotic factors are

ecosystems whereas abiotic factors are non-living factors

and we'll talk about examples now so living factors

now so living factors include Marine

Plankton non-living factors include climate and you can be really specific

climate and you can be really specific there you can talk about

temperature soil PH

type any minerals or nutrients present so you can absolutely see this

present so you can absolutely see this division between biotic living and

division between biotic living and non-living factors which are abiotic

non-living factors which are abiotic factors be prepared to talk about

factors be prepared to talk about specific Coastal ecosystem so for

specific Coastal ecosystem so for example if they ask about sandunes your

example if they ask about sandunes your living factors would include that maram

living factors would include that maram grass it could include any organisms

grass it could include any organisms which cause disease to that maram grass

which cause disease to that maram grass it could include animals burrowing

it could include animals burrowing inside the sandun the non-living factors

inside the sandun the non-living factors would definitely include climate so

would definitely include climate so temperature soil PH rainfall wind now

temperature soil PH rainfall wind now we're considering how Coastal ecosystems

we're considering how Coastal ecosystems are threatened by people and their

are threatened by people and their activities so what human activities

activities so what human activities affect Coastal ecosystems

affect Coastal ecosystems well to Briefly summarize they can be

well to Briefly summarize they can be subdivided into industrial

subdivided into industrial activities agricultural ones so ones

activities agricultural ones so ones relating to

relating to farming tourism activities so people

farming tourism activities so people going on holiday as well as

going on holiday as well as deforestation so that means cutting down

deforestation so that means cutting down vegetation and

vegetation and trees so let's take each of these in

trees so let's take each of these in turn so number one

turn so number one industry dumping of industri

pollution which can affect biodiversity and disrupt food chains

remember biodiversity relates to the variety of living organisms whether

variety of living organisms whether that's plant or animals within a

that's plant or animals within a particular

particular ecosystem so obviously this dumping of

ecosystem so obviously this dumping of Industrial Waste will reduce

biodiversity you also got issues with the need to protect industry against

the need to protect industry against Coastal erosion meaning that you build

Coastal erosion meaning that you build hard engineering strategies such as sea

hard engineering strategies such as sea walls and that absolutely can damage the

walls and that absolutely can damage the natural

habitat building ports and land reclamation for Coastal development can

reclamation for Coastal development can lead to the destruction of coastal

lead to the destruction of coastal environments reducing biodiversity so

environments reducing biodiversity so from an industrial point of view

from an industrial point of view remember people build ports which

remember people build ports which contain ships cargo ships in order to

contain ships cargo ships in order to move products around land reclamation is

move products around land reclamation is all about draining land of sea meaning

all about draining land of sea meaning that you can then build on it and

that you can then build on it and clearly both of these things are going

clearly both of these things are going to destroy Coastal environments and

to destroy Coastal environments and reduce

reduce biodiversity now we're going to move

biodiversity now we're going to move away from industry and consider

away from industry and consider tourism so the first thing Mass tourism

tourism so the first thing Mass tourism can do is increase the levels of

can do is increase the levels of pollution on the beach and pollution

pollution on the beach and pollution those polluting materials can enter the

those polluting materials can enter the food chain and therefore endanger Marine

populations the tourism industry may lead to tourists scaring Wildlife which

lead to tourists scaring Wildlife which obviously has a negative impact on the

obviously has a negative impact on the coastal

ecosystem let's now consider deforestation and really when we talk

deforestation and really when we talk about Coastal ecosystems we're kind of

about Coastal ecosystems we're kind of talking about the trumpling of

talking about the trumpling of vegetation so that's when people walk

vegetation so that's when people walk around on Sand Junes for example and

around on Sand Junes for example and sand Junes are very fragile and if you

sand Junes are very fragile and if you damage those maram grasses you're going

damage those maram grasses you're going to have fewer roots to hold down the

to have fewer roots to hold down the sand which the Junes are comprised

of and then lastly agriculture so farming now farming often

agriculture so farming now farming often uses chemical

uses chemical fertilizers now remember when it rains

fertilizers now remember when it rains these may be leeched washed into the sea

these may be leeched washed into the sea or on salt marshes make sure your answer

or on salt marshes make sure your answer is relevant to the exact question being

is relevant to the exact question being asked I'm just going to write leeched

asked I'm just going to write leeched into water which leads to UT tropication

into water which leads to UT tropication so that's the buildup of algae when the

so that's the buildup of algae when the algae

algae dies bacterial numbers increase using up

dies bacterial numbers increase using up all the oxygen making that water very

all the oxygen making that water very lacking in oxygen therefore reducing

lacking in oxygen therefore reducing Aquatic Life so that's going to damage

Aquatic Life so that's going to damage the ecosystem agriculture also involves

the ecosystem agriculture also involves the applying of

the applying of pesticides so these are chemicals which

pesticides so these are chemicals which kill pests like

kill pests like aphids now these are very

aphids now these are very toxic and they disrupt food

toxic and they disrupt food chains and if they build up in those

chains and if they build up in those food chains two good words to use are

food chains two good words to use are biomagnification

accumulation remember with agriculture you'll often find land

you'll often find land reclamation just to provide more land

reclamation just to provide more land for

for farming so we can steal this answer

leads to the destruction of coastal environments and therefore reduces

biodiversity so broadly speaking this upload is about conflicts between

upload is about conflicts between different users of the coastal

ecosystems we're going to start by considering what goods are provided by

considering what goods are provided by Coastal

Coastal ecosystems so obviously human food

ecosystems so obviously human food from

from fishing using Lobster pots to obtain

fishing using Lobster pots to obtain shellfish we get animal

shellfish we get animal feed from fish

meal obviously sea water is incredibly salty so we can obtain that salt and

salty so we can obtain that salt and that helps us preserve

that helps us preserve food and particularly in the old days

food and particularly in the old days this was the main way in which people

this was the main way in which people preserve their food

preserve their food and then lastly we get land which can

and then lastly we get land which can provide space to build settlements and

provide space to build settlements and farming we also get construction

farming we also get construction material particularly

sand which we can Harvest from our beaches and we need that sand for making

beaches and we need that sand for making concrete cement mortar which we stick

concrete cement mortar which we stick our bricks together on our houses what

our bricks together on our houses what services now are provided by Coastal

services now are provided by Coastal ecosystems

well when we build Harbors we get protection from

storms ler Pursuits such as scuba

remember most Coastal ecosystems but particularly coral

particularly coral reefs salt marshes are a great source of

reefs salt marshes are a great source of biodiversity and provide great habitats

biodiversity and provide great habitats for

wildlife who are the main users of coastal ecosystems

employers as we have places for shops offices and

factories places for Farmers if that land has been reclaimed they can plant

land has been reclaimed they can plant crops or keep their animals

there any harbors and ports provide work for

for fishermen now the transport industry

fishermen now the transport industry will build

will build ports and airports close to the coast

ports and airports close to the coast for obvious reasons particularly those

for obvious reasons particularly those ports will allow the movement of

ports will allow the movement of shipping containers

and then finally tourist which is probably the one which You'll Think of

probably the one which You'll Think of first of all which will be using the

first of all which will be using the beaches and hotels which have been built

beaches and hotels which have been built there now really looking at potential

there now really looking at potential conflicts so potential conflicts over

conflicts so potential conflicts over use of coral reef ecosystems

so if we consider tourist use they want to go snorkeling and scuba

use they want to go snorkeling and scuba diving to look at the wide range of

which will want to fish on the coral reefs reducing

damage so a major source of conflict here is going to obviously be the

conservationists will want to preserve the coral reef

the coral reef which is likely to conflict with the

which is likely to conflict with the interests of the tourists and the

interests of the tourists and the fishermen who want to use it as a

resource now we'll consider conflicts and

mangroves remember mangroves provide a great place for

great place for fish and crustacean nurseries so where

fish and crustacean nurseries so where they are going to spawn and bring up

they are going to spawn and bring up their

land Mangrove Timber provides the source of fuel and building material

so we can already see a potential conflict here between the preservation

conflict here between the preservation where we want to maintain our mangroves

where we want to maintain our mangroves to provide fish and crustacean nurseries

to provide fish and crustacean nurseries for those Mangrove roots to hold down

for those Mangrove roots to hold down the silt but then obviously if we have

the silt but then obviously if we have humans wanting to Deforest to harvest

humans wanting to Deforest to harvest those trees for timber that's obviously

those trees for timber that's obviously going to cause damage so there's a

going to cause damage so there's a conflict

destruction of mangroves and we'll really talk about

mangroves and we'll really talk about what those types of Destruction are I've

what those types of Destruction are I've already mentioned

deforestation land reclamation and even aquaculture

shrimps so the roots hold down silt and the mangoes provide

silt and the mangoes provide protection for low-lying

protection for low-lying land against Storm surges

now we take San June and potential conflicts these are likely to be the

conflicts these are likely to be the least threatened because they offer

least threatened because they offer little by way of leisure tourism

little by way of leisure tourism industry and agricultural possibility

industry and agricultural possibility so least under threat

there's one way in which they could be used for leisure activity people like to

used for leisure activity people like to build golf

build golf courses and they like to go trekking and

courses and they like to go trekking and horse riding because they are very

horse riding because they are very pretty and obviously that can destroy

pretty and obviously that can destroy that fragile sand and maram

grass and we do really want to protect our

sandunes because again they provide protection for low-lying land against

protection for low-lying land against Storm surges

flooding and we're going to be looking at Storm

surges what is the storm surge well it's a temporary rise in local sea

coast in terms of the optimum conditions for storm surge It's a combination of

for storm surge It's a combination of high tides and low lying

land and a place where this commonly happens is the Bay of

Bengal what about tsunamis so how is tsunamis caused they're caused by

tsunamis caused they're caused by earthquakes which occur at destructive

earthquakes which occur at destructive plate

detail an oceanic plate is subducted so forced

forced under under a continental

plate and it's this movement which thrusts the water above causing the huge

thrusts the water above causing the huge characteristic tsunami

wave and as we know these waves can travel enormous

distances what happens when the waves reach shallower water is first of all

reach shallower water is first of all the shallower water causes is the

the shallower water causes is the slowing of the

slowing of the Waves you might know this from physics

Waves you might know this from physics when waves slow down they move closer

when waves slow down they move closer together it's a bit like traffic on a

together it's a bit like traffic on a Motorway the slower the traffic the

Motorway the slower the traffic the closer the cars

are the height of the wave may increase by several meters

Retreats and this indicates that the Sunami is approaching the

coast and then you get the huge waves which are characteristic of the

which are characteristic of the tsunami lastly how does climate change

tsunami lastly how does climate change cause Coastal

cause Coastal flooding well it's the release of

flooding well it's the release of greenhouse

greenhouse gases such as carbon

gases such as carbon dioxide methane the enhanced greenhouse

dioxide methane the enhanced greenhouse effect causes global warming and that

effect causes global warming and that melts polar ice

caps and you get a rise in sea level which will obviously flood low Ling land

which will obviously flood low Ling land in coastal areas

so you'll probably know this from biology as

well strategies used to predict when flooding will occur first up historic

flooding will occur first up historic records as the name suggests identifying

records as the name suggests identifying the areas which have been flooded the

the areas which have been flooded the most frequently and most severely

next up accurate forecasting of possible Hazard

events so for example if you know that a iCal storms

iCal storms coming then that might quite likely lead

coming then that might quite likely lead to a storm

to a storm surge and if you have an earthquake then

surge and if you have an earthquake then there's an increased likelihood

there's an increased likelihood obviously that a tsunami might

occur and this will also enable you to make predictions about the potential

make predictions about the potential strength and scale of a particular event

strength and scale of a particular event now we're going to explain how

now we're going to explain how prevention strategies can reduce the

prevention strategies can reduce the impact of coastal

strategies EG flood defenses built along the

coastline help reduce the severity of flooding

another example of a prevention strategy is restricting where buildings can be

built because clearly if you're not building where coastal flooding is

building where coastal flooding is likely to take place then that limits

likely to take place then that limits the amount of damage

and this therefore reduces the potential economic impact of a

flood early Warning Systems now may give messages through the environment agency

messages through the environment agency which will help people evacuate if

which will help people evacuate if necessary preventing potential loss of

necessary preventing potential loss of life

and then alternative strategies include building emergency centers for people to

building emergency centers for people to shter in reducing the number of people

shter in reducing the number of people who might be killed

now we're going to move on to hard engineering Coastal management

engineering Coastal management strategies as a summary hard engineering

strategies as a summary hard engineering strategies are usually made using

strategies are usually made using concrete or

steel they tend to be human-made and usually cost a lot to

build and they work very much against natural processes

the examples of hard engineering strategies I'm going to take you through

strategies I'm going to take you through include

include groins

wrap and these are all examples of hard engineering

engineering strategies so here I am on the BBC B

strategies so here I am on the BBC B size website and we can see very clearly

size website and we can see very clearly pictures of wooden groins these are

pictures of wooden groins these are barriers built at right angles to the

barriers built at right angles to the beach and you can see how they trap

beach and you can see how they trap sediment between them which help build

sediment between them which help build up a larger beach which can absorb wave

up a larger beach which can absorb wave energy and therefore reduce erosion

so obviously the good thing about coins is they're highly effective at absorbing

is they're highly effective at absorbing wave energy and reducing erosion but

wave energy and reducing erosion but clearly by trapping the sunand they

clearly by trapping the sunand they starve areas of Coastline further down

starve areas of Coastline further down the coast of sand which may lead to

the coast of sand which may lead to further erosion in these areas so a sad

further erosion in these areas so a sad thing about groins is by trapping

sand leading to increased erosion in these

revetments so now I'm pinging to Wikipedia and we're looking at

Wikipedia and we're looking at revetments these are sloping structures

revetments these are sloping structures built on embankments or shorelines along

built on embankments or shorelines along the base of the cliff and again they

the base of the cliff and again they will absorb wave energy and reduce

will absorb wave energy and reduce erosion but I think we can agree they're

erosion but I think we can agree they're pretty aesthetically unappealing I.E

pretty aesthetically unappealing I.E they're super ugly but they are very

they're super ugly but they are very effective obviously once they start

effective obviously once they start rotting then they'll need replacing

rotting then they'll need replacing which will have a large impact in terms

which will have a large impact in terms of

cost because they're made from wood they're a fairly low cost

solution and again we can steal this point here saying that they absorb wave

point here saying that they absorb wave energy and reduce

erosion but the sad thing about them is that they are

that they are aesthetically

walls so here's a sea wall these are concrete barriers that limit the effect

concrete barriers that limit the effect of coastal erosion

of coastal erosion and they're very good for reducing

and they're very good for reducing damage to high value land they're hard

damage to high value land they're hard wearing but they're usually the most

wearing but they're usually the most expensive option and obviously over time

expensive option and obviously over time they can become eroded themselves so

they can become eroded themselves so they need

maintenance so they limit damage to high value land

they're hard wearing they're expensive to

maintenance and this is what you'll find is common with all hard engineering

is common with all hard engineering strategies is the level of Maintenance

strategies is the level of Maintenance they'll all require

gabian now here's a gabian you can see that a mesh work is created usually out

that a mesh work is created usually out of steel and that these will contain

of steel and that these will contain rocks

rocks again the thought process behind this is

again the thought process behind this is that it will help absorb the waves

that it will help absorb the waves energy and prevent

erosion so they'll absorb wave energy reduce

reduce erosion they're cheap and easy to

build but a lot of people find them aesthetically unappealing

last up rip wrap Rock

armor large rocks or Boulders are placed in front of the

in front of the cliff they act to absorb wave energy

cliff they act to absorb wave energy reducing erosion people tend to find

reducing erosion people tend to find this more aesthetically pleasing because

this more aesthetically pleasing because they look more natural than a concrete

they look more natural than a concrete wall

wall but the disadvantage is that strong

but the disadvantage is that strong waves can cause the boulders to move

waves can cause the boulders to move meaning they need to be

replaced moving on to soft engineering Coastal management strategies so unlike

Coastal management strategies so unlike hard engineering strategies they work

hard engineering strategies they work with natural

with natural processes so if you remember sea walls

processes so if you remember sea walls revent mins rip wrap they absolutely do

revent mins rip wrap they absolutely do not work with natural processes they

not work with natural processes they work very much against them whereas soft

work very much against them whereas soft engineering strategies are the total

engineering strategies are the total opposite and because of this they're

opposite and because of this they're usually

natural but not as effective at preventing Coastal erosion compared with

preventing Coastal erosion compared with hard engine in

strategies we're going to be looking at the following soft engineering Coastal

the following soft engineering Coastal management strategies in more detail so

management strategies in more detail so beach

Rehabilitation sandune nourishment otherwise known as

Retreat so beginning with Beach replenishment

as the name suggests sand is placed on a beach to create a higher and wider Beach

beach to create a higher and wider Beach meaning that more wave energy can be

meaning that more wave energy can be absorbed thus protecting the land behind

so what are the various advantages of this well it's a sustainable

approach fact that you're creating a larger beach mean means that it's likely

larger beach mean means that it's likely to be more appealing to

tourists a big disadvantage is that the s needs to be transported to the

regrading this is when the steepness of the cliff is reduced meaning that it's

the cliff is reduced meaning that it's less vulnerable to

collapse good things about this is that it's fairly low cost and again it's

sustainable bad things about it is that it involves the loss of part of the

cliff and whilst doing this the cliff itself May

collapse particularly if it's unstable to begin

to begin with ecosystem

Rehabilitation so this is planting vegetation and restoring natural

vegetation and restoring natural processes

advantages of this is that it enhances the natural appearance so it's a nice

the natural appearance so it's a nice pretty approach to preventing Coastal

pretty approach to preventing Coastal erosion as opposed to building something

erosion as opposed to building something like a seaw wall or fitting

gabian it's highly sustainable and it will prevent erosion because remember

will prevent erosion because remember those plant roots will help hold down

those plant roots will help hold down the

sand it does require maintenance and again it's not going to be the most

again it's not going to be the most amazingly effective way of stopping

specifically this is planting maram grass which remember is commonly found

grass which remember is commonly found on Sand

on Sand jeun highly specialized

jeun highly specialized plant the grass traps the

sand and it provides a barrier between the sea and land

it's a fairly cheap process and approach and again highly

sustainable disadvantages again there's no

place and they are very very fragile ecosystems sandunes may be damaged by

ecosystems sandunes may be damaged by storms people trampling tourist

now this is when some areas of low value land are just allowed to to be

flooded so basically we give up in these areas in terms of trying to stop the sea

areas in terms of trying to stop the sea doing its

thing and because that water is sea water you're going to produce a salt

water you're going to produce a salt marsh which is a very valuable

marsh which is a very valuable habitat for birds and vegetation

we're going to be providing a natural barrier between the sea and

land where that land is owned by land owners they'll require

owners they'll require compensation not that's particularly bad

compensation not that's particularly bad thing I'm just writing it

here because effectively they're losing their land to the salt

marsh so a tropical Cyclone is an example of a hazard a hazard is an event

example of a hazard a hazard is an event which causes damage and destruction to

which causes damage and destruction to people their property settlements

people their property settlements infrastructure and good examples of

infrastructure and good examples of hazardous events include earthquakes

hazardous events include earthquakes tropical Cyclones flooding and volcanoes

tropical Cyclones flooding and volcanoes but we are going to focus in on a

but we are going to focus in on a tropical Cyclone so starting with the

tropical Cyclone so starting with the characteristics of a tropical Cyclone

characteristics of a tropical Cyclone you'll expect to see firstly a huge

you'll expect to see firstly a huge warpool this is a gigantic mass of

warpool this is a gigantic mass of revolving moist air there'll be an eye

revolving moist air there'll be an eye now an eye is a very very eerie place

now an eye is a very very eerie place the eye of the storm the eye of the

the eye of the storm the eye of the tropical Cyclone is an area spanning

tropical Cyclone is an area spanning around 40 km where you'll actually find

around 40 km where you'll actually find little to no rainfall and low winds but

little to no rainfall and low winds but surrounding the eye is what we call the

surrounding the eye is what we call the cumulon nimbus clouds these are huge

cumulon nimbus clouds these are huge towering clouds that surround the eye

towering clouds that surround the eye and here you'll find extremely high

and here you'll find extremely high winds High rainfall and in fact the

winds High rainfall and in fact the winds can blow as strongly as 320 km per

winds can blow as strongly as 320 km per hour and they're going to be responsible

hour and they're going to be responsible for a lot of the damage associated with

for a lot of the damage associated with tropical Cyclones a couple of important

tropical Cyclones a couple of important definitions now starting with wind shear

definitions now starting with wind shear this is a change in directional wind

this is a change in directional wind speed over either a horizontal or

speed over either a horizontal or vertical distance next up the corus

vertical distance next up the corus effect or corus Force this is due to the

effect or corus Force this is due to the Earth's rotation it means we experience

Earth's rotation it means we experience an apparent force and depending on which

an apparent force and depending on which hemisphere this force will act in a

hemisphere this force will act in a particular direction so in the northern

particular direction so in the northern hemisphere the coriolus force deflects

hemisphere the coriolus force deflects the wind towards the right and in the

the wind towards the right and in the southern hemisphere the coriolus force

southern hemisphere the coriolus force deflects the wind direction towards the

deflects the wind direction towards the left so what conditions do we need for a

left so what conditions do we need for a tropical Cyclone to form first of all we

tropical Cyclone to form first of all we need the warmth and moisture associated

need the warmth and moisture associated with warm oceans found in the tropics so

with warm oceans found in the tropics so we're looking at Tropical Cyclones

we're looking at Tropical Cyclones forming near the equator with warm water

forming near the equator with warm water temperatures of at least 26° C you'll

temperatures of at least 26° C you'll also find low air pressures in the

also find low air pressures in the tropics and low air pressures are needed

tropics and low air pressures are needed for tropical Cyclones to form the

for tropical Cyclones to form the importance of the low air pressure is

importance of the low air pressure is that it pulls water high as the Cyclone

that it pulls water high as the Cyclone gather speed obviously you'll need the

gather speed obviously you'll need the presence of the Corola Force which will

presence of the Corola Force which will be in effect present always because of

be in effect present always because of the Earth's rotation but that will

the Earth's rotation but that will influence whether the tropical Cyclone

influence whether the tropical Cyclone winds are blowing towards the right or

winds are blowing towards the right or towards the left you need a low wind Shi

towards the left you need a low wind Shi because with high wind shears you'll

because with high wind shears you'll remove the moisture and the heat needed

remove the moisture and the heat needed for tropical Cyclone

formation so what damage does the tropical Cyclones cause so remember what

tropical Cyclones cause so remember what do we get with a tropical Cyclone high

do we get with a tropical Cyclone high winds and high rainfalls so then think

winds and high rainfalls so then think about well what will high wind cause so

about well what will high wind cause so the strong winds associated with a

the strong winds associated with a tropical Cyclone will obviously cause

tropical Cyclone will obviously cause damage to people's settlements their

damage to people's settlements their property their crops as well as

property their crops as well as transport infrastructure heavy rainfall

transport infrastructure heavy rainfall causes flash floods and landslides Storm

causes flash floods and landslides Storm surges associated with low air pressure

surges associated with low air pressure May flood low-lying land destroying

May flood low-lying land destroying infrastructure and property and remember

infrastructure and property and remember the direction that the tropical Cyclone

the direction that the tropical Cyclone will move will be dictated by the

will move will be dictated by the direction of the prevailing wind as well

direction of the prevailing wind as well as influenced by the coris

effect now the impact that the tropical Cyclone has on a particular area depends

Cyclone has on a particular area depends very much on the level of devel

very much on the level of devel velopment so are there early Warning

velopment so are there early Warning Systems in place telling people that the

Systems in place telling people that the tropical Cyclone is expected can people

tropical Cyclone is expected can people move to safer places what kind of

move to safer places what kind of infrastructur is in place are the

infrastructur is in place are the buildings reinforced how high or low

buildings reinforced how high or low Ling is the land obviously low-lying

Ling is the land obviously low-lying land will be more susceptible to storm

land will be more susceptible to storm surges and the flooding associated with

surges and the flooding associated with that if you're looking at places areas

that if you're looking at places areas with higher urbanizations so more

with higher urbanizations so more housing will obviously be more affected

housing will obviously be more affected by tropical Cyclones compared with

by tropical Cyclones compared with agricultural areas although obviously

agricultural areas although obviously these places will see damage to their

crops let's touch on the devices used to measure tropical Cyclones so you've got

measure tropical Cyclones so you've got the sappi Simpson scale weather stations

the sappi Simpson scale weather stations and satellite systems as well as anomers

and satellite systems as well as anomers will help you monitor the formation of

will help you monitor the formation of tropical cyclone and How likely they are

tropical cyclone and How likely they are to

occur identify one characteristic of a tropical Cyclone so remember I talked

tropical Cyclone so remember I talked about the fact that you have that eye of

about the fact that you have that eye of the storm with very low wind speeds low

the storm with very low wind speeds low rainfall you have cumulo nimbus clouds

rainfall you have cumulo nimbus clouds and you have a gigantic whirpool what do

and you have a gigantic whirpool what do we have here we can see area of very

we have here we can see area of very high pressure that's wrong remember it's

high pressure that's wrong remember it's an area of very low pressure very little

an area of very low pressure very little rainfall that's only true of inside the

rainfall that's only true of inside the eye it's not true for the whole tropical

eye it's not true for the whole tropical Cyclone low wind speeds no it's high

Cyclone low wind speeds no it's high wind speeds again the exception being

wind speeds again the exception being the I so the answer here is d

State one factor that can affect tropical Cyclone formation I'm just

tropical Cyclone formation I'm just going to pop here the Coriolis effect

going to pop here the Coriolis effect remember that's the effect of the

remember that's the effect of the Earth's rotation on the direction that

Earth's rotation on the direction that the winds blow you could have also said

the winds blow you could have also said warm sea temperatures remember we need a

warm sea temperatures remember we need a minimum of 26° CSUS wind sheare air

minimum of 26° CSUS wind sheare air pressure climate explain one long-term

pressure climate explain one long-term impact of a tropical

impact of a tropical Cyclone so anything sensible here let's

Cyclone so anything sensible here let's just talk about damage to infrastructure

just talk about damage to infrastructure caused by the very high

caused by the very high winds which requires heavy investment

winds which requires heavy investment from the government to

fix you could have also mentioned people's homes are destroyed leading to

people's homes are destroyed leading to homelessness and therefore the

homelessness and therefore the development of makeshift settlements

development of makeshift settlements explain two reasons why people continue

explain two reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk of tropical

to live in areas at risk of tropical Cyclones so why do people continue to

Cyclones so why do people continue to live in areas where tropical Cyclones

live in areas where tropical Cyclones occur well first of all they may be

occur well first of all they may be aware of the risk but accept that as

aware of the risk but accept that as part of the life of that area and do not

part of the life of that area and do not feel that the danger to themselves and

feel that the danger to themselves and their lives is a big enough reason to

their lives is a big enough reason to prompt them to move

out another reason people live in areas at risk of tropical Cyclones is that

at risk of tropical Cyclones is that people may be financially

people may be financially unstable so have no choice but to

stay now I want to talk to you about earthquakes we'll start with earthquake

earthquakes we'll start with earthquake formation so what causes an earthquake

formation so what causes an earthquake well you need an oceanic plate and a

well you need an oceanic plate and a continental plate they move towards each

continental plate they move towards each other the oceanic plate is denser than

other the oceanic plate is denser than the continental plate so it is subducted

the continental plate so it is subducted under the continental plate it's forced

under the continental plate it's forced underneath and there's a buildup of

underneath and there's a buildup of friction which is released at that plate

friction which is released at that plate boundary in the form of seismic waves

boundary in the form of seismic waves which are felt now the center point of

which are felt now the center point of the earthquake is known as the focus and

the earthquake is known as the focus and then the point on the Earth's surface

then the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus is known as the

directly above the focus is known as the epicenter and that's where the strongest

epicenter and that's where the strongest seismic waves are felt what devices used

seismic waves are felt what devices used to record the size of an earthquake it's

to record the size of an earthquake it's known as a seismograph not to be

known as a seismograph not to be confused with the scales used to measure

confused with the scales used to measure the intensity of an earthquake these are

the intensity of an earthquake these are known as the RoR scale the moment

known as the RoR scale the moment magnitude scale MMS and the M scale

magnitude scale MMS and the M scale earthquakes form at destructive plate

earthquakes form at destructive plate boundaries and that's because the

boundaries and that's because the oceanic plate over time is getting

oceanic plate over time is getting destroyed as it's subducted under the

destroyed as it's subducted under the continental plate I'm sure you're aware

continental plate I'm sure you're aware but one result of an earthquake is the

but one result of an earthquake is the formation of a gigantic wave known as a

formation of a gigantic wave known as a tsunami so how do tsunamis form tectonic

tsunami so how do tsunamis form tectonic plate movement can trigger an earthquake

plate movement can trigger an earthquake which releases shock waves those shock

which releases shock waves those shock waves cause waves on the sea surface

waves cause waves on the sea surface when the wave splits it then becomes

when the wave splits it then becomes Amplified as it approaches the shore

Amplified as it approaches the shore generating the huge waves you associate

generating the huge waves you associate with a tsunami as we've already

with a tsunami as we've already mentioned earthquakes occur along

mentioned earthquakes occur along tectonic plate boundaries 80% of

tectonic plate boundaries 80% of earthquakes occur around the Pacific

earthquakes occur around the Pacific Ocean where the Pacific Plate is being

Ocean where the Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the surrounding plates

subducted beneath the surrounding plates and that's why this area is known as the

and that's why this area is known as the Pacific ring of fire so what sort of

Pacific ring of fire so what sort of damage to earthquakes cause obviously

damage to earthquakes cause obviously any tsunamis that are generated flood

any tsunamis that are generated flood low-lying land damaging infrastructure

low-lying land damaging infrastructure people's homes destroying crops and

people's homes destroying crops and again simply the Tremors caused by the

again simply the Tremors caused by the earthquake May do exactly the same here

earthquake May do exactly the same here this leads to homelessness it leads to

this leads to homelessness it leads to governments needing to rebuild

governments needing to rebuild infrastructure it leads to the

infrastructure it leads to the development of makeshift settlements it

development of makeshift settlements it can lead to damage to Water Supplies gas

can lead to damage to Water Supplies gas pipelines electricity pylons why are

pipelines electricity pylons why are some people more susceptible to tectonic

some people more susceptible to tectonic hazards such as earthquakes well first

hazards such as earthquakes well first of all they live close to a plate

of all they live close to a plate boundary clearly as I've already said

boundary clearly as I've already said plate boundaries are where earthquakes

plate boundaries are where earthquakes occur so therefore these people will be

occur so therefore these people will be more likely to be affected compared with

more likely to be affected compared with people who live in the center of a

people who live in the center of a tectonic plate population density also

tectonic plate population density also has a huge role to play mega cities

has a huge role to play mega cities contain huge numbers of people and there

contain huge numbers of people and there therefore large numbers of people are

therefore large numbers of people are likely to be affected in the event of an

likely to be affected in the event of an earthquake occurring some countries are

earthquake occurring some countries are more vulnerable to earthquake events

more vulnerable to earthquake events compared with others this is often due

compared with others this is often due to money so there could be a lack of

to money so there could be a lack of early Warning Systems in some countries

early Warning Systems in some countries meaning that people don't know when they

meaning that people don't know when they need to leave their homes when they need

need to leave their homes when they need to move to safer areas you could find

to move to safer areas you could find that in places with less money that the

that in places with less money that the buildings aren't reinforced

buildings aren't reinforced appropriately with concrete exoskeletons

appropriately with concrete exoskeletons meaning they're more likely to collapse

meaning they're more likely to collapse this kills people and also means that

this kills people and also means that their homes are more likely to be

their homes are more likely to be destroyed even in the event of the

destroyed even in the event of the earthquake occurring different countries

earthquake occurring different countries have different responses so differing

have different responses so differing abilities to treat injured people to

abilities to treat injured people to evacuate them to safer areas let's list

evacuate them to safer areas let's list the short-term impacts of an earthquake

the short-term impacts of an earthquake so damage to infrastructure damage to

so damage to infrastructure damage to crops damages to services such as

crops damages to services such as hospitals there could be tsunamis due to

hospitals there could be tsunamis due to the shock waves occurring under the

the shock waves occurring under the ocean there could be landslides

ocean there could be landslides mudslides flooding this will be likely

mudslides flooding this will be likely due to the tsunami

the longer term impacts of an earthquake are largely the financial costs

are largely the financial costs repairing Services infrastructure

repairing Services infrastructure damaged roads and I'm going to run you

damaged roads and I'm going to run you through a past paper question that

through a past paper question that really looks in Greater depth at the

really looks in Greater depth at the short and long-term impacts of an

short and long-term impacts of an earthquake study figure 3C in the

earthquake study figure 3C in the resource booklet analyze the short and

resource booklet analyze the short and long-term impacts of the earthquake

long-term impacts of the earthquake event we're going to give an overview

event we're going to give an overview using our knowledge what we've studied

using our knowledge what we've studied in class on our own reading text

in class on our own reading text texbooks Etc we're going to discuss all

texbooks Etc we're going to discuss all the short and long-term impacts of

the short and long-term impacts of earthquake events and then we're going

earthquake events and then we're going to analyze that means use the

to analyze that means use the information provided in figure 3C to

information provided in figure 3C to look at the extent to which this

look at the extent to which this particular earthquake event affected

particular earthquake event affected people both in the short and longterm so

people both in the short and longterm so we'll start with a general statement

we'll start with a general statement saying that there's a range of short and

saying that there's a range of short and long-term impacts of earthquakes and

long-term impacts of earthquakes and these vary due to the size and intensity

these vary due to the size and intensity of the earthquake as well as the

of the earthquake as well as the location it's always worth writing this

location it's always worth writing this sort of thing to begin with in this type

sort of thing to begin with in this type of

question so we'll start with General statements about short-term

statements about short-term impacts include

Tremors which damage buildings shatter

which damage buildings shatter glass Etc which could lead to

glass Etc which could lead to debris this may kill

people long-term impacts now include homelessness contaminated water

homelessness contaminated water supplies this means that a government

supplies this means that a government will need to spend lots of money fixing

will need to spend lots of money fixing these

issues and now we're going to check out figure 3 C so in order to maximize our

figure 3 C so in order to maximize our chance of getting eight marks in this

chance of getting eight marks in this question we really need to look in depth

question we really need to look in depth at figure 3 C which shows details about

at figure 3 C which shows details about an earthquake event in Haiti a

an earthquake event in Haiti a developing country in 2010 so we're

developing country in 2010 so we're going to work our way around the figure

going to work our way around the figure starting here with this key perceived

starting here with this key perceived shaking so obviously the darker the

shaking so obviously the darker the shade of blue the more extreme shaking

shade of blue the more extreme shaking that the area receives so you can see

that the area receives so you can see that violent shaking is experienced down

that violent shaking is experienced down here at Porto Prince car 4 Gracia and

here at Porto Prince car 4 Gracia and Lian so I'm just going to make a note

Lian so I'm just going to make a note here that a large area

here that a large area experiences violent

experiences violent shaking and name a place such as Port

shaking and name a place such as Port oints so we're really focusing in our

oints so we're really focusing in our answer on figure three we'll now look at

answer on figure three we'll now look at this table we have a population of 9.95

this table we have a population of 9.95 million shortterm impacts 220,000 people

million shortterm impacts 220,000 people killed goodness me that's absolutely

killed goodness me that's absolutely horrific it's a massive number of people

horrific it's a massive number of people 300,000 people injured on top of

300,000 people injured on top of that so really flushing this out a large

that so really flushing this out a large number of people

affected and that's a short-term impact now let's look at the longer term

impact now let's look at the longer term impact 2 million people with poor access

impact 2 million people with poor access to food and water obviously that's going

to food and water obviously that's going to have huge knock on effects 1.3

to have huge knock on effects 1.3 million people homeless and we can see

million people homeless and we can see outbreaks of colon that will be due to

outbreaks of colon that will be due to the poor access to clean drinking water

the poor access to clean drinking water potentially poor sanitation so we can

potentially poor sanitation so we can see huge

see huge disruption to

disruption to infrastructure so let's start to write

infrastructure so let's start to write out our answer

out our answer now so figure

now so figure 3C

3C shows that a large

severe short-term impacts and we're going to list how many people died 20

going to list how many people died 20 gosh what a number 220,000 people died

gosh what a number 220,000 people died and 300,000 people are

effects include water contaminated with

chera and a large number of people made homeless

we can really point out that figure 3 C constantly refer to the figure so they

constantly refer to the figure so they know that you're using the data suggests

know that you're using the data suggests a high level of

as with tropical Cyclones why do people continue to live in areas which are

continue to live in areas which are susceptible to earthquakes primarily

susceptible to earthquakes primarily because despite the fact that they know

because despite the fact that they know the risks they may not have the

the risks they may not have the financial means to move away from a

financial means to move away from a particular area they could have

particular area they could have established their families they don't

established their families they don't want to leave them remember places where

want to leave them remember places where there's High population so mega cities

there's High population so mega cities are going to be more susceptible to the

are going to be more susceptible to the damage caused by earthquakes now going

damage caused by earthquakes now going to take you through preparation for

to take you through preparation for earthquakes such as warning and

earthquakes such as warning and evacuation building design remote

evacuation building design remote sensing and GIS so I'll take you through

sensing and GIS so I'll take you through a past paper question first of all for

a past paper question first of all for building Design This says one way but I

building Design This says one way but I want to give you several examples you

want to give you several examples you want to talk about steel

want to talk about steel frames that sway during an

earthquake you could talk about rubber shock absorbers in

foundations so through both of these things you'll find that buildings are

things you'll find that buildings are less likely to be damaged during an

less likely to be damaged during an earthquake and less likely to create

debris you could talk about buildings having lightweight

windows this is important because you're going to find that during an earthquake

going to find that during an earthquake the safety glass or glass indeed will

the safety glass or glass indeed will smash and that's obviously going to be

smash and that's obviously going to be awful for anyone walking beneath the

awful for anyone walking beneath the building in this way you're going to

building in this way you're going to reduce the number of

reduce the number of injuries you've got things like concrete

collapsing as well as building design governments can carry out emergency

governments can carry out emergency drills this involves the population

drills this involves the population practicing what to do in the event of an

practicing what to do in the event of an earthquake also involves telling them

earthquake also involves telling them where they should go the the purpose of

where they should go the the purpose of this is to increase the chance of

this is to increase the chance of survival also key are evacuation

population again so that people know what to do in the event of an earthquake

let's talk about GIS now this stands for geographic information

systems and crucially these can be used before during and after a hazardous

before during and after a hazardous event such as an earthquake

so there's a wide range in which GIS may help it can help you identify Road

help it can help you identify Road structures and actually I'm going to

structures and actually I'm going to create a mini mind map mind maps are not

create a mini mind map mind maps are not my favorite thing but I think in this

my favorite thing but I think in this case when we discuss how GIS can be used

case when we discuss how GIS can be used to manage earthquakes I think it's going

to manage earthquakes I think it's going to be the most beneficial way I can

to be the most beneficial way I can display this so GIS allows roads to be

identified which enables emergency AIDS such as ambulances

such as ambulances food and water

food and water supplies GIS also provides Maps which

supplies GIS also provides Maps which can be shared with all support agencies

can be shared with all support agencies therefore enabling a more coordinated

therefore enabling a more coordinated relief effort ensuring that resources

relief effort ensuring that resources are not wasted and get to where they

are not wasted and get to where they need to be much

faster GIS can also enable you to identify where services were before the

identify where services were before the earthquake occurred and therefore where

earthquake occurred and therefore where they can be built

afterwards so the earthquakes occurred what types of short-term relief exists

what types of short-term relief exists to help reduce the impact of the

to help reduce the impact of the earthquake you've got

earthquake you've got tents which provide

starvation because that food is free you've got Emergency Medical Aid is

free you've got Emergency Medical Aid is used to treat injuries caused by Falling

used to treat injuries caused by Falling debris and bottled water that's key when

debris and bottled water that's key when lots of water sources will have become

lots of water sources will have become contaminated

chera now we're going to discuss longer term planning so this is the approach

term planning so this is the approach that governments can take in order to

that governments can take in order to reduce the impact of

reduce the impact of earthquakes so an important one here is

earthquakes so an important one here is Hazard

mapping this involves risk ass assessments being

planners of really two things which buildings need

reinforcing and where to avoid building on

explain why earthquakes occur at destructive plate margins we need four

destructive plate margins we need four marks here so our first Mark is to say

marks here so our first Mark is to say that the oceanic and continental plates

that the oceanic and continental plates move towards each

is subducted or sinks beneath the continental

plate and melts there is friction which builds

identify which of the following can be used to record earthquakes it's going to

used to record earthquakes it's going to be a seismograph don't be confused with

be a seismograph don't be confused with the RoR scale remember that's used to

the RoR scale remember that's used to measure the size of an earthquake the

measure the size of an earthquake the key word here is record suggest two

key word here is record suggest two reasons why some places are more

reasons why some places are more vulnerable to tectonic hazards compared

vulnerable to tectonic hazards compared with others so obviously the closeness

with others so obviously the closeness or proximity to a plate boundary the

or proximity to a plate boundary the closer you are the higher the chance of

closer you are the higher the chance of experiencing an earthquake hazard and

experiencing an earthquake hazard and then population size and population

then population size and population density is also going to be important

density is also going to be important because obviously where people are more

because obviously where people are more densely living together they're more

densely living together they're more vulnerable to hazards such as

vulnerable to hazards such as earthquakes and buildings and

earthquakes and buildings and infrastructure collapsing on them

explain one strategy to reduce the impacts from earthquake events clearly

impacts from earthquake events clearly early Warning Systems if people know

early Warning Systems if people know that an earthquake is due to occur it

that an earthquake is due to occur it allows these people to

evacuate which could therefore reduce deaths so those the three points we need

deaths so those the three points we need to make for the three

marks you could have also mentioned building earthquake resistant buildings

building earthquake resistant buildings such as a concrete exoskeleton which

such as a concrete exoskeleton which reduces damage caused by the ground

reduces damage caused by the ground shaking during an earthquake which would

shaking during an earthquake which would result in less

result in less injuries now we're moving on to

injuries now we're moving on to volcanoes so I'll be talking about their

volcanoes so I'll be talking about their characteristics

characteristics their formation and their

their formation and their distribution so first of all to

distribution so first of all to summarize what a volcano is it's a vent

summarize what a volcano is it's a vent in the Earth's crust as we can see here

in the Earth's crust as we can see here through which magma flows this is molten

through which magma flows this is molten rock and it flows over the Earth's

rock and it flows over the Earth's surface where it cools to form volcanic

surface where it cools to form volcanic rock and obviously as these layers build

rock and obviously as these layers build up you get that characteristic cone

up you get that characteristic cone shape that you find with these composite

shape that you find with these composite volcanoes

now volcanoes expel gases Ash and solid volcanic

expel gases Ash and solid volcanic rock but how do volcanoes form they

rock but how do volcanoes form they occur both destructive and constructive

occur both destructive and constructive plate boundaries here we see a

plate boundaries here we see a destructive plate boundary what occurs

destructive plate boundary what occurs here is that two tectonic plates push

here is that two tectonic plates push together until one is subducted which

together until one is subducted which means forced beneath the other one as

means forced beneath the other one as the plate is pushed down the rock melts

the plate is pushed down the rock melts this builds up pressure underneath the

this builds up pressure underneath the Earth's surface and means that magma can

Earth's surface and means that magma can be forced through faults in that crust

be forced through faults in that crust so I'll just write out the summary here

so to summarize the volcano formation at a destructive plate boundary we have our

a destructive plate boundary we have our two plates pushing together until one is

two plates pushing together until one is subducted as the plate is pushed down

subducted as the plate is pushed down the rock melts and builds up pressure in

the rock melts and builds up pressure in the Earth's surface but what about

the Earth's surface but what about volcano formation at a constructive

volcano formation at a constructive plate boundary so I think that this type

plate boundary so I think that this type of volcano formation is slightly more

of volcano formation is slightly more straightforward here you'll find that

straightforward here you'll find that the plates are moving apart so the

the plates are moving apart so the tectonic plates diverge they move move

tectonic plates diverge they move move apart and magma rises up in order to

apart and magma rises up in order to fill the Gap and there you'll find your

fill the Gap and there you'll find your volcano May

erupt just a tiny extra detail here they could ask you how do hot spots lead to a

could ask you how do hot spots lead to a tectonic Hazard such as a volcano so

tectonic Hazard such as a volcano so we're just going to say here that a hot

we're just going to say here that a hot spot

they are stores or plums of

volcanoes let's talk about the distribution of volcano you're going to

distribution of volcano you're going to find them concentrated along tectonic

find them concentrated along tectonic plate boundaries as we see here and

plate boundaries as we see here and specifically around the Pacific Ocean

specifically around the Pacific Ocean where the Pacific Plate is being

where the Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the surrounding plates

subducted beneath the surrounding plates and that's why we call this the Pacific

and that's why we call this the Pacific Ring of Fire

now we can measure the intensity of a volcano Hazard using the volcanic

volcano Hazard using the volcanic explosivity index

now it's time to turn our attention to the characteristics of volcanoes so

the characteristics of volcanoes so we'll be going through things like lava

we'll be going through things like lava flows ash clouds lava bombs

flows ash clouds lava bombs Etc so starting with the lava flow these

Etc so starting with the lava flow these May reach as far as 10 km from the

May reach as far as 10 km from the volcano crater they'll destroy farmlands

volcano crater they'll destroy farmlands and buildings but lives are rarely lost

clouds these are thrown into the air during a violent

eruption they may be carried long distances by wind and cause adverse

distances by wind and cause adverse effects in other

countries a good example of this is the volcano eruption

volcano eruption in Iceland in 2010 which caused Mass

in Iceland in 2010 which caused Mass travel disruption to many countries

travel disruption to many countries hundreds of kilometers

away Ash May bury buildings and crops and cause Suffocation or asphixiation of

and cause Suffocation or asphixiation of animals and humans

now volcanoes Bouch an awful lot of toxic gases when they

toxic gases when they erupt these include sulfur

dioxide carbon monoxide and even

cyanide so these are highly toxic gases carbon dioxide is also released but it's

carbon dioxide is also released but it's not toxic but it is a greenhouse gas

not toxic but it is a greenhouse gas which can contribute to global

warming sorry about how I've written those symbols but I am a chemist so

those symbols but I am a chemist so that's why I've written the chemical

that's why I've written the chemical formula of those gases what about lava

formula of those gases what about lava bombs now these are terrifying things

bombs now these are terrifying things due to the buildup of pressure large

due to the buildup of pressure large Boulders of lava may be emitted at high

Boulders of lava may be emitted at high speed causing severe injury and death to

speed causing severe injury and death to any animals or humans caught in their

any animals or humans caught in their path

as we previously mentioned in another video obviously the tectonic plates

video obviously the tectonic plates moving can be a major source of

moving can be a major source of earthquakes so it's common to get

earthquakes so it's common to get earthquakes where you find volcanoes

flow this is a fast moving current of hot gas and lava which moves at high

hot gas and lava which moves at high speed along the ground away from the

speed along the ground away from the volcano

this causes damage to crops and buildings and may lead to Serious injury

buildings and may lead to Serious injury and

death and then lastly mudslides maybe not one that you think

mudslides maybe not one that you think of immediately but they commonly occur

of immediately but they commonly occur in places which have been littered with

in places which have been littered with volcanic

material now we're answering the question why do people continue to live

question why do people continue to live in places at risk from

in places at risk from volcanoes well one very good reason is

volcanoes well one very good reason is because of the quality of the

because of the quality of the soil found close to volcanoes that Ash

soil found close to volcanoes that Ash which gets deposited increases the

which gets deposited increases the fertility of the soil and therefore

fertility of the soil and therefore produces good crop

yields so increased crop yield serious eruptions may be considered to be rare

eruptions may be considered to be rare and therefore not considered a serious

and therefore not considered a serious threat by residents

tied in with this first point the quality of the soil volcanic areas are

quality of the soil volcanic areas are often rich in mineral deposits which

often rich in mineral deposits which provides people with a potential source

provides people with a potential source of income hence they choose to

stay and then it's that matter where so many people have historically lived in

many people have historically lived in an area they have so many settlements

an area they have so many settlements present that the family connect ctions

present that the family connect ctions people build mean that they do not want

people build mean that they do not want to leave the area in spite of all the

risks and then when you've got that open vent with the access to the magma it

vent with the access to the magma it means that you have access to geothermal

means that you have access to geothermal energy a type of renewable energy

energy a type of renewable energy resource that provides people with a low

resource that provides people with a low cost source of energy

now this bit of the specification deals with the reasons for differing impacts

with the reasons for differing impacts of particular volcano events so why does

of particular volcano events so why does one particular volcano erupting cause

one particular volcano erupting cause very few deaths very little damage to

very few deaths very little damage to infrastructure whilst other volcano

infrastructure whilst other volcano events cause huge amounts of damage and

events cause huge amounts of damage and destruction so the first point is

destruction so the first point is obviously the location size and length

obviously the location size and length of the eruptive episode will have a huge

of the eruptive episode will have a huge influence as well as how prepared local

influence as well as how prepared local areas were for the

eruption we've already pointed out the various characteristics of

various characteristics of volcanoes so you're not guaranteed all

volcanoes so you're not guaranteed all of these characteristics when a volcano

of these characteristics when a volcano erupts so we know that some volcanoes

erupts so we know that some volcanoes produce more Ash which causes travel

produce more Ash which causes travel disruption very long distances away when

disruption very long distances away when we take that Icelandic volcano eruption

we take that Icelandic volcano eruption back back in 2010 some produced more

back back in 2010 some produced more pyroclastic

flow which cause a lot of injury and death to animals and

humans the impact of a volcano will depend on how much preparation has taken

depend on how much preparation has taken place beforehand how much warning they

place beforehand how much warning they got that it was going to

got that it was going to happen so level

happen so level of PR

preparedness local emergency services in situ SO waiting to come and

services in situ SO waiting to come and rescue people as well as warnings

rescue people as well as warnings telling people to

telling people to evacuate that will reduce the number of

evacuate that will reduce the number of deaths from the

volcano population density is also very key obviously if you've got huge mega

key obviously if you've got huge mega cities or even just large settlements

cities or even just large settlements close to the volcano they're going to be

close to the volcano they're going to be more vulnerable to any of the lava flows

more vulnerable to any of the lava flows and pyroclastic flow as well as ash

and pyroclastic flow as well as ash clouds

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