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Química General I - Semana 1 - Teórico 29/3/2022

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Summary

Core Theme

This content is an introductory lecture for a General Chemistry course, outlining the course structure, communication methods, and the fundamental concepts that will be covered across two semesters, emphasizing chemistry as a foundational science.

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Okay, good morning. My name is

Khan Vinos, and I'm in charge of the course. I

wanted to let

that there are a lot of students starting the course; it usually

ranges between 600, 700, and 800. Therefore,

much of our communication will

be through the web. We have a

page where you'll find everything

you need for the chemistry course.

First of all, the

lecture presentations will

be available on that website. They're in

PDF format, so

you don't have to copy them into the

presentations; otherwise, you can simply

use them to take notes.

On this page I'm linking to, you'll find

the general chemistry course. Once you're

accessing it, you'll

have all the necessary information

regarding how the course works, the

cost of the course, and

all the materials posted on the bulletin board. You'll also

bulletin board. You'll also

receive a bulletin board notification

so we have something to let you know. This is

the most efficient way for

us. You'll be required to be on

that list to receive a notification,

and you'll have all the materials available on the page.

Now, let me tell you... A little bit of what you'll have available,

like your general planet course,

we're going to start this forest with a

definition of chemistry.

I found this: chemistry is the science

that studies and describes matter, its

chemical and physical properties, the

chemical and physical changes it undergoes, and

the energy variations that accompany

these processes. So, we're going to

start by describing

the constitution of matter.

Then we'll move on to see what the

programs will show us. We'll gradually move

from atoms and molecules and then

that we study. So, in the chemistry course, you'll see

the fundamentals of all branches

of chemistry. That's why we

consider our subject to be the foundation of

your knowledge. In other words, we're going to talk about the

fundamentals of chemistry that you need and

that you'll use in all subsequent courses

of inorganic chemistry,

organic chemistry, or general chemistry. In all

chemistry courses, you'll use the

knowledge you acquire here in

So, I wanted to tell you a little bit about what we're going to

see. This is the topic of chemistry with

us, to enjoy two

chemical subjects for students now in this

semester and in the next. Second semester,

general technical course.

So, in this semester, chemistry is for

the student. We're going to talk about the

basic concepts of the structure of

matter, the electronic structure

of atoms, and the

periodic properties of electronic polys, the physical states

of matter, and thermodynamics, which we're going

to see because we need it as a

tool to study bonding:

ionic bonding, covalent bonding, and

finally other chemical forces. This

will allow us to apply

all the knowledge acquired

to elucidate aspects

about solids, liquids, and

gases, and about bonding based on the type

of bond that these

plants or molecules present.

And well,

in the second semester, we're going to advance

a little more; that is, we're going to move from

atoms and molecules

to chemical reactions, and we're going to

study different aspects of

chemical reactions.

The first thing we'll discuss, which we call

mass relationships, is in reactions,

in what you usually call symmetry.

symmetry.

The rate of reaction is

symmetrical, the degree of progress of the

reactions. When we study chemical equilibrium, we'll study

reactions based on precipitation reactions and

precipitation reactions.

And then the next aspect What we're going to

see are energetic aspects of

reactions and finally processes, reducing

both equalization and the study of

electrolysis cells and barredos.

So, the second semester will

focus on chemical reactions and the

study of different aspects

Regarding the current course,

General Chemistry 1, we returned to

in-person classes and went back to the

way we've

traditionally taught courses, with some

additions for this

year to facilitate the transition from so much

virtual learning to in-person learning.

So, we're going to

have two modalities for the

STEM and General Chemistry courses, and a practical one.

Remember that first of all, we have

a theoretical part, which consists

of the class we're having

today, which will be

virtual. We'll always have this

schedule on Tuesdays, the 12th, and

then all the steps

of the recorded class will be available so you

can study. That is, either in person or through

person or through

the recorded class. Regarding the

practical part of the course, which can be done

in two modalities: in person or

virtually, and for example, construction.

More flexible, or since the

in-person format involves 12 groups,

you've been signing up for. You need to

start paying attention to

the messages we send you because those of you who

I know

always ask me about the many people left out, you'll

all have

a place in the practical course. Without a

doubt, don't worry. What you have

to do is follow the procedure

indicated on the website. You have to fill out

your requests for group changes

or group changes for work, and you will be

assigned to groups.

Attendance is mandatory for these twelve groups. It's

a three-hour practical class

because we've returned to in-person classes.

We have an initial 45-minute

consultation period, which is not mandatory.

During those 45 minutes, you can

ask questions about previous classes.

Therefore, next week, when

the practical course begins,

remember that you won't have those 45 minutes

because you'll be picking up the

instructors at the lecture hall. That's the

first class, so there's no

consultation because there are no

previous classes. So, except for the class that

comes next week... The first practical class is practical;

all the others have those 45

minutes of consultation, which is not

mandatory, where you can

ask the teacher anything you

need to know.

We have a 15-minute break, and

then two hours that are mandatory.

If you have mandatory attendance

in the face-to-face course,

and according to the regulations, you have to

have 80% attendance, that

attendance, that

is, if it's going to be a roll call, that's what I mean.

mean.

Regarding the flexible or

distance learning modality, it's not like you have a fixed classroom

because there isn't a class. What

you have is a lot

of materials, the same as in the face-to-face course,

plus others, and in

exchange for not having

mandatory attendance, you have to complete

complete

virtual activities. These are mandatory, and

again, you have to complete them

satisfactorily, meaning

with an

adequate level of correct answers. You

also have to have 80

% of the activities submitted on

time. You will see that you have a schedule

and this year we added weekly consultations, the

times of which we will give you, where you have

open attendance sessions where you can

come online to consult with a teacher. Regarding

your questions, Texas,

what materials will we have available?

We have a lot. On the one hand, we have the

recorded theory, which is available for

both modalities on the course website. You'll

see how the practical course works. We have

weekly handouts that contain two types of exercises:

exercises:

application exercises and self-assessment exercises.

self-assessment exercises.

The application exercises are

those we've chosen as

representative so that you

learn the content of

this week's topic, and they will

always be solved in the face-to-face class. In

addition, the handouts also include

self-assessment exercises where you will

solve exercises testing what you

learned in the

application exercises. You can do this at home and

have the opportunity to ask questions in

the consultation sessions or through the academic forum. You will also

have access to materials

for each topic, prepared by the faculty,

which we will upload

weekly. These materials contain the

theoretical foundations of the topic covered that week.

week.

We also have an

administrative forum, which is strictly for

for

administrative questions, and an academic forum

where a teacher will

answer your questions daily.

Regarding the resolution of

the three exercises on

theoretical concepts, they were covered in the theoretical section.

And another very important thing you have now, which you didn't have before, is that

during the pandemic we created materials.

So, both in the in

-person and flexible learning modalities, you will have access to

videos corresponding to the resolution

of the application exercises in the

practical class. These are

application exercises solved by a teacher or by a teacher. This material was

developed during

the pandemic and will now be kept available

as additional resources for you.

Another thing you will have is also a

result of pandemic-related materials.

During the pandemic, we changed the

course format and had

shorter classes where we solved

more advanced and

applied exercises from the following topics.

You will have access to

these exercises in the handout that

contains them, and you will

also have access to the solutions.

This is optional; you can use

the additional material if you want it to

to study.

study.

So, as you can see, we have a set of

materials available for you

both in the in-person and flexible learning modalities. We

also have ways for

you to

Questions besides the consultation class,

the schedule, sorry, the prior consultation

that you have in each face-to-face class, yes, well,

the details of each modality will

be on the website. For the

flexible modality, now you have to sign up, you

have to request the

flexible modality in Greece, and then once

you make this request, which

involves signing a

confidentiality agreement because there are

additional materials

that are not for the face-to-face classes, that

are only for the flexible modality,

so you will have to sign that there. You will

also be given a schedule

for submitting the activities through the

given access to the

flexible modality as soon as possible. Now, those who didn't

do that don't have access, but don't worry, you will be

enabled to

enter the flexible modality and

start seeing the materials and start working.

Well, I think I haven't forgotten anything about how it works.

works.

Anyway, the details of how it works

are on the course website, and you

have your

face-to-face teachers to ask questions about it,

and the forum, the flexible forum,

where you can also ask

questions about how the

flexible or distance learning modality works, the virtual modality. Well, so you're going

virtual modality. Well, so you're going

to To continue the class, we're going to trivialize it with

a social class, which is more of a

review of different topics that

you need to know beforehand

in order to work on the feasible lines course that

the professor will be teaching.

So, well, I'll say goodbye to

you, and we'll be available for any

any

questions you may have later through

said tonight was to share.

Well, as Dinora said,

today's class is, in a way, a

review class because we're going to see

topics that are listed there, which

most of you

have probably seen in previous

chemistry courses, for example, in secondary school, and we

also saw them with those who

participated in the leveling course we had

during the

month of March. So, basically,

the content of today's class will be

about what matter is, how it is

classified, and what type of matter

is distinguished and known as a

mixture, a substance, an

element, a compound, and more. At the

end of the class, we're going to see about

[Music] Okay, so

to begin,

since chemistry is The science that

studies matter and its

transformations, so we need to

know what we mean when

we talk about matter. Matter is

practically everything we

know; anything that has

mass and occupies a certain volume—everything

that constitutes the tangible universe

see that in

science we tend to classify things, making

many classifications. Matter is

classified into two main groups. One of

them is substances, or perhaps

you might know them as pure substances. The

other group is mixtures, and within mixtures, there are

two types.

types.

Substances can be differentiated

into elements and compounds, which we'll

see what each of these

terms means. Mixtures come in two

types: homogeneous mixtures and

heterogeneous mixtures.

Sorry, I forgot to mention that if you have

any questions, raise your hand and

one of my classmates or I will

give you the floor.

Before we continue, please enable the microphone and gloves.

So, this is the

general classification of matter. Now

we'll see what each of these terms means. So, to begin, let's

look at what a

substance is. A substance is

a form of matter with a

defined and constant chemical composition, which in

turn gives it

properties that are also defined

and constant.

What does this imply? That different

substances will have different

compositions and different properties. It's

true that some substances will be more

similar to each other and will have

properties that behave

similarly, but strictly speaking, each

substance has properties that

characterize it and, of course, a

composition. It's very important to

remember that this composition is

defined and constant. For example, what

is given by the chemical formula of a

As an example of a substance familiar

to you, we can mention sugar,

since what is written below is

precisely the chemical formula. So, what does

this formula indicate? Well, that in the

sugar molecule there will be a

certain number of

carbon atoms, which in this case are

12, a certain number of

hydrogen atoms, which are 22, and 11 oxygen atoms.

This is the formula for sugar, and there is no

other. And if there is any change in

these numbers, or if any

element is added, the substance will cease to

be sugar. To be a

different substance, and sugar, as you

know, has certain

characteristics. For example, I can

look at it and see that it's an

apparently white solid. Moreover, under a

microscope, it's crystalline.

If I taste it, I know it has a

sweet flavor, and all those things that one can

can

measure or determine in some way, the

properties or characteristics of

And well, it's not the only example we

have here. Another example is a substance

in a liquid state, for example, water.

You all know very well what the

formula for water is, and it's also a

formula that indicates its composition. [Music]

[Music]

Substances can also be in a

gaseous state, or in this case, what

we show in this photo is nitrogen,

which is actually very much a liquid

that, when placed in a container, becomes a

gaseous state.

And finally, we have here a photo of

silver crystals. The silver used to

make jewelry, etc., in

crystalline form is a

completely different substance from the others, and each

one has very different properties in terms of the

method of aggregation. You

can see that they are different.

Let's move on to see, then, what a mixture is, as

opposed to a substance. So,

we said that a substance has a

defined and constant composition. A mixture is a

combination of two or more substances,

and therefore it can be made up

of varying amounts of these

substances. In other words, a mixture is not

necessarily always the same. And

in that mixture, each of the

substances that compose it maintains its

identity and properties.

A typical example of a mixture is

air. For example, here in

Montevideo at sea level, we have an

air composition that is very similar

to what is shown in this

pie chart above, where we know that there is

approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.

oxygen.

But this air composition

is the general one here at

sea level; it is not the same, for example, in the

city of La Paz in Bolivia at 3600

meters above sea level, where the amount of

oxygen is lower. That is, the air mixture

is not necessarily always the same.

And the air, for example, near a

factory where gases are being emitted as a

product of production in the surrounding

area, the composition of the air

can also be different.

So, we see that the composition of mixtures

can be variable.

However, if I were to separate the mixture...

In its

constituent substances,

in 11 of its components, they will be

found unaltered if I can

recover them in a certain way. As long as there is

a process, a physical method by which

a mixture can be separated, I will

recover each of its components. They will

form unaltered. If the

air, nitrogen, and oxygen, the other

gases that compose it, were separated, and it is active, well,

for example, I could have the bases

in individual containers and each

of them would maintain its characteristics

as a substance, just as we saw earlier.

These are what I was referring to when I mentioned air,

without telling you what type of mixture it was.

But two types of mixtures can be distinguished;

that is what we saw in the

diagram. In the classification,

the two types of mixtures are

homogeneous mixtures and

heterogeneous mixtures. So what do I mean

when I say homogeneous mixture? Well, I am

talking about a mixture that has a

uniform composition and therefore

uniform properties. That is, the substances that are

mixed, two, three, or more,

are distributed within that mixture

in such a way that

one portion cannot be distinguished from another.

So we have several types. You

know, for example,

We've talked about leveling solutions,

and there are other types of homogeneous mixtures

that might seem less intuitive to imagine,

imagine,

but metal alloys like

Superman steel beams for

construction are also

homogeneous mixtures. These are solid solutions,

in fact. And here I've given you an example so

that you can

better understand the composition and

properties of uniform materials. What does this

mean? I have, for example, a

photo of some coins from Uruguay. What does it

mean? That a property is

something I can measure or determine

in some way.

In one case, through a chemical method, for

example, the composition can be determined

if I cut

these one-peso and

two-peso coins from Uruguay into many tiny pieces. What I'll

find is that, at one time, a few

years ago,

the gold part

of the coins was made

of an alloy that was 92 percent

copper, 6 percent aluminum, and 2 percent

nickel. What does this mean? That any

portion of the coin that I take and

analyze further will have this same composition, and

this composition, in turn, gives

certain characteristics to that coin, just like the

two-peso coin, the

five-peso coin, and so on. On the

other hand, the ten-peso coins

have the same composition in the center

and the outer part is made of stainless steel. So,

if I look at the whole, I distinguish two

separate parts, but the

inner part is always the same. That

is, this composition is constant throughout the entire coin.

coin.

A heterogeneous mixture, well, we can

define it by the fact that they don't

have a uniform composition and properties.

And here in this example, we have

an example of sand and iron,

which would be something Quite visual, or

for example, this jar

contains stones and seeds of

different types. At first glance, you

can distinguish that there are

different phases because there are different

components in this mixture. This is

something that can't be done in a homogeneous mixture.

We also said that

substances would be classified into two groups,

groups,

one of which was the elements.

Elements are basically what we're dealing with. So, throughout

the entire

chemistry degree, starting in the general chemistry course,

we'll always be

referring to them, as well as the

periodic table. Therefore, we need to be

very clear about what they are.

Here's the definition: an

element is a substance that cannot be

broken down into simpler substances

by chemical methods.

We're going to distinguish between

chemical methods and

physical methods, by which

a mixture cannot be separated,

for example. By chemical methods, we

mean, for example, a

chemical reaction. An element cannot be

broken down; that is, it's the simplest type of

substance we

are 83 naturally occurring elements, and to this day

there are 35 artificial elements,

giving a total of Of the 118 elements that are

organized in the

periodic table, as we'll see now,

each element has a symbol that

identifies it. The symbol of an element

can be one or two letters; generally,

sometimes there are three, but the most typical is one

or two letters.

Each symbol is associated with a

We say it's like

having a

new language, an alphabet, a

new language that you will have to

learn throughout the general chemistry course.

And you will continue learning

later what nomenclature is,

in order to communicate at a

universal level. All chemists

communicate using this language. You will have to

learn it in your coursework, but that's

also why we're here.

For example, in today's class, we're

Here are some examples of

element names so you can see that

names can actually refer

to a lot of different things.

We have elements like argon, which

originates from the Greek word "argos,"

meaning inactive or inert. It

is one of the gases. Of

the noble gases, which react very little, they were

named based on some

characteristic of theirs.

Chromium, for example, comes from the word "

chroma," which means color. There are other

elements like curium,

named after two people:

Pierre and Marie Curie. There are several

elements named after

scientists who discovered them or who

had an important role in

the discovery process, and so they are

named in their honor.

We have, well, several that refer to

color, like iron, from the word "

technically speaking, like technetium, which

means artificial. And vanadium, which isn't named after a

Norse goddess; look it up in the Gala of

Injured Stars. This fact is something I didn't know.

know.

And so, there are various names. There are

names from the cities where they were

discovered, etc. There are a

number of different things,

and as I was telling you all, they are

organized in the periodic table,

which is this table we have here.

You probably know several types; you

buy them at the newsstand, they are

cardboard, and there are different versions. You

can see them on the internet, some

interactive ones, and books always... They are in

a periodic table on the back cover of

chemistry books. All of them are

valid to use, and you will see

that some have more elements than

others because, in this case, well, here I

added the most recently

discovered elements. Some of you may or may

not have them. I'm always asked in the leveling course

if it's important that the book has all

118 elements or if it's missing one. It doesn't matter

because most of the chemistry

you will study will be dedicated

to all the other elements, which are the

known and most stable ones.

But anyway, these are organized in the

periodic table, which has this shape that

seems strange because each of

the sections of the tables has

a different meaning, which we will discuss

discuss

later. They are different parts of the table

table

in which the elements are organized, and

the elements are ordered in the

periodic table in increasing order of

atomic number, that is, starting with hydrogen,

passing through helium, lithium, and beryllium, and

so on. The atomic number of

these elements increases; the

atomic number is the number of protons.

And one more comment regarding the

names of the elements,

which you need to know can be two

letters or The symbol for elements is three letters. When

elements are first synthesized,

sometimes the laboratory gives them names.

For example, element 117, which is

Inception, has a symbol like this,

but later it can be called

a common name, a

familiar name. In this case, it was called Tennessine,

after the city in Tennessee where the

laboratory where it was discovered was located. It

ends up appearing in the table with

this other name. But these types

of symbols exist, and there's another type of

nomenclature that is used to

So, we're going to see the symbols of the

elements represented

in a diagram like this, and we're going to

see what each part means. For the

letter, in this case, it's the letter that

symbolizes what I was explaining, what has to do

with the name. And then there's

some other information that's written

around it, depending on what

one wants to refer to. So,

for example, the numbers, the zetas, which

are the ones here on the left.

Well, I mentioned the atomic number,

which is the number of protons, and it's what

gives the order in the periodic table. It's the

zeta, which is a number that is usually

written in the lower left corner.

The law of the symbol for the letter is that

the symbol of the element, the letter or letters,

and the one written with a

symbolic base is the mass number,

which is the number of protons plus the

number of neutrons. It goes up here on the

left side, towards the top. So,

for example, if one wants to mention a

certain isotope of an element, what one

does is write the symbol with the

atomic number and above it the

mass number, which is the sum of

the number of neutrons, which is what

distinguishes one isotope from others. For example,

example,

and we have here this X, which is what is

called the charge, which is the number of

atoms per molecule. In the case of

wanting to describe an element, for example,

hydrogen, hydrogen in its natural state

forms molecules of

two atoms of hydrogen. It would be written,

And finally, what we have at the top

right is the charge. The charge is

written when we are

talking about ions. The charge is written

as the charge number first and then

the positive or negative sign, whether it's a

truck with a positive charge or an animal with a

negative charge.

We always write all four numbers.

Sometimes, first, the

double one is omitted, and

sometimes we don't distinguish

isotopes, so we don't write the

mass number, nor the Z number,

necessarily. But well, that

depends on the information we're

given in each

And well, because of the structure of the

periodic table, as I was saying, it has this

shape; it's a bit strange, but not

arbitrary, of course.

And the periodic table basically has

what are called groups or families, which

are each of the columns we see

in the table. The groups in the

families are numbered from 1 to 18,

starting with the first group

on the left, which is the

alkali metals, one

of those with a proper name, and

ending with the noble gases,

which is number 18. It

also has what are known as

periods, which form the rows

of the table—seven periods in total.

So, in these periods, and that's why

the table is called a periodic table,

we'll see, and we'll have

class time later dedicated

exclusively to this, that there are

properties of the elements that vary.

For example, within a period, they vary in one direction.

Increasing in one period and then

repeating in the next, the

trend occurs because the elements

have periodic properties, and it is

according to these properties that they

are also organized in this table. That

is, the organization is not only by

atomic number but also by fulfilling

some other

conditions that we will see in more

Well, as I was saying, there are some groups

that have their own names. The first,

without hydrogen, is known

as the

alkali metals group, and the second is the

alkaline earth metals group. Another group

with a name is the halogens,

which are group 17, and the

noble gases, group 18. And then, in

general, the other groups are named according to the

element above them.

For example, if I want to refer to

this group, I say the boron group, or the

carbon group, which would be group

number 14. The numbering isn't here, but so, what is the purpose of

but so, what is the purpose of

using the

periodic table? What is the objective of having

the elements grouped in

this way, or also of what we are going to

see. Here are the blocks, what are

called blocks with different names.

Now we'll tell you the idea is that they are

a lot of elements that we are going to

study. Chemistry is a

very broad discipline. The periodic table

helps us to systematize

information, to have the information

organized in a certain way, so that

if I learn the

characteristics of a certain group of

elements or a certain block, then

I can identify or think about what the

behavior of an element would be depending on

where it is located. For example,

regarding the blocks, there are four, and

there is a tenth block, that one, which is the

alkali metals.

The p-block, which is this

almost square shape towards

the right of the table, the d-block, which

is the middle strip of the

transition metals, and the f-block, which is this one that's kind of off to the right of the

table, which are

metals, also the

lanthanides and the active metals. So, how can

this be useful to me?

Well, if I have to think about something in the

chemistry of phosphorus, maybe I don't have

very clear details about phosphorus, but

I know the behavior of nitrogen

or I know the behavior of sulfur, and

well, since it's next to it, I can do more. or

less reasoning because I learned some

characteristics of this block, how

that food behaves, or if it's further to the

right, the table will have a

larger or smaller radius. These are the kinds of things

that throughout the course and the

degree you get used to being able to

regarding the abundance of the

elements. Well, we see here that we have in

this list 12 elements. These are

elements that constitute 99.7%

by mass of the Earth's crust. So

imagine that from those 118—well,

several were artificial—but of

all that quantity of elements, with only

12 we would form almost 100

percent of the Earth's crust. Yes,

each of them, well, with different abundance.

abundance.

So these are the most

abundant, the most common elements, and

many of them, in fact, were the ones

that the first scientist began to study

because they were easy to find.

find.

We're talking about prehistory,

where iron was already known to have been

used. Not much was known about it,

but it was very abundant. And

then we have here another set of

elements that, on the contrary to all

those that were the 99.7% of the crust

and there were only 12. Here we have another bunch

of elements, some of which you'll see are

repeated. They are the same

elements that were important for the

Earth's crust. Some of them are

marked in this table where they are

named; that is, we tell ourselves that they are the

essential elements or bioelements. They are

elements that are precisely

essential; they will be very important to

fulfill biological functions with

metabolism, cellular functions, etc.

And notice that some seem more

obvious, like, I don't know, the calcium that we have

in our bones, or

nitrogen, oxygen that is in

nitrogenous bases, etc. But there are others that

are also metals, and perhaps one does

n't imagine that this set of

metals will be important for

biological systems. I don't know, one thinks of

manganese or iron and thinks of the

Earth's crust. Well, they are also

important for human beings. [Music]

[Music]

In this case, we have another distinction that

can be made in the periodic table, and it's like

the blocks and

the groups, with their

own names. This is the important thing to keep

in mind

from now on because we are going to

refer to this a lot. And it's the

distinction between metals,

nonmetals, and semimetals. So

basically, we can say that most

of the table is made up of metals, which

are indicated in black in

this image. Notice that the metals are the

are the

entire alkali metal group.

Hydrogen is placed

here because of its atomic weight, but remember

that it's not an alkali metal. The

entire p-block, that is, the entire middle section,

and a part

of the p-block are all metals. That is,

most of the elements. What would be, in a way,

towards the left side of the table, on the

far right, in what is, let's

say, half of the p-block,

we find the elements that

are nonmetals. In this case, they are

probably imagine them

because they are things you know, like

fluorine, chlorine, oxygen, and the

noble gases. You can imagine that they are not

metals with the characteristics of

metals. The IE has, for

example, the atmosphere of the IE.

And in the middle, we have what is

marked in pink. In this case, this

diagonal band is what we

call... Semimetals—what is a semimetal?

semimetal?

Well, it's an element that

actually has some properties

very similar to those of metals, and in

other properties, it behaves more like a

metal. This

is a behavior that

we could call intermediate between one and the

other. Depending on the characteristic I'm

observing, it will resemble a

metal more than a metal. Yes,

but well, then you'll also

hear us talk about the

metallic character, for example, of an

element. What is the metallic character of an element?

Well, that will also depend on

where it's positioned in the table. Currently, I

Currently, I

repeat, most are metals, from the

middle of the table to the left, and more

than half towards the left are metals.

Nonmetals are

relatively few, but with a

very rich chemistry despite being a small number. If

we talk about the physical state of the

elements, well, we can distinguish

the three fundamental physical states of

matter in the periodic table. That is, under

conditions, as it says here, of 25

degrees and one atmosphere—that is,

room temperature,

we could say, and atmospheric pressure—

what we see is that, precisely because

most elements are metals,

most are found in a solid state

because... All the metals,

there's one of them, mercury, which

is linked, but most metals

Then, in the non-metals section,

looking at the non-metals,

we find that we have many gases.

The noble gases, as

their name suggests, are part of the halogens.

The first halogens, nitrogen and

oxygen, are gases under these conditions.

Hydrogen is too. And you'll see that within

the halogens, the

state of matter changes as we

move through the group. We have fluorine, and of course, it's a

gas. Bromine is a liquid, and

the last two are solids. So,

bromine and mercury are the two

elements that are found in a

liquid state even in nature. In the

interactive tables here, for

example, there are two links to tables

that I know and like. You

can change the conditions,

for example, of pressure and temperature,

and it shows you the different states of

matter of the elements. In any case, it's

one of the things that's good to see.

And well, we'll see, as

I was saying, the elements, and well, they come

in their natural state as gases, and we talked

a little about Tommy Cidad. What all this was about is that

there are

some elements that have to do with

us, also aggregation, that we

will find in the form of

atoms. Atoms stand alone so

that they don't interact or form a bond,

like the noble gases. Each

of the noble gases is found in the

form of atoms, for example,

independent helium atoms,

independent neon atoms.

Other elements, some of them gases,

but also liquid bromine, helium,

etc., form what we call

discrete molecules.

What does discrete molecules mean?

It means that you can distinguish

one from another, they are like separate entities.

So the most common bases of air

come in the form of molecules and atoms.

The halogens are also all

molecules and atoms. Sulfur, for

example, in molecular form with 8 atoms,

phosphorus with four atoms, among others.

These are the most common.

Well, that is represented in these

figures. For example, in the

oxygen molecule there are two oxygen atoms, and

also here it is indicated

with these two lines that what is formed is

a double bond. It's not just any bond.

We have a question, let's see, Santiago [Music]

[Music]

yes We say the microphone

called

discrete molecules or anything that's

defined as a discrete entity, which

means that it's distinguishable from one

another, that is, as separate entities. For example,

if I were to observe them closely

and see, see, the molecules... The separated ones,

this is in contrast to what,

for example, we're going to see now,

are solids [Music]

[Music]

that form three-dimensional networks where you ca

n't distinguish one from another.

Now, now you'll realize the difference.

difference.

Well, we have other elements that are what are

called solids, but

molecular ones. Instead of forming

discrete entities, excuse me, they form networks

where there are many, infinite atoms

organized in a certain way.

For example, here are the ones in the other

post about carbon. They are different from each

other because they have different

structures in the solid state.

One is diamond, behind it graphite,

another is... this is a case of

fullerenes, an example. Yes, but what I'm getting at is

that each of these atoms is

surrounded by others of the same kind and in

certain arrangements, but there are no

associations, for example, between pairs,

like I just mentioned, of four atoms that can be

distinguished from one another. Instead, this

is infinite and it's all the same; you can't

We also have metallic solids, that

is, those that make up the majority of the

periodic table, which are metals, which

also form networks, and in this case, it's not...

We weren't talking about

discrete entities here; it's precisely the

fact that they are networks that can take

different forms. Here,

two types of networks are shown: a

public house and this hexagonal one.

In metals, all the atoms are organized in these

networks one

after the other. For different

metals, there will be a different arrangement.

And well, this is the way

we find solids in nature.

I mentioned something in the

other post about

carbon. Well, I didn't explain

exactly what that means the other day,

but precisely these are—excuse me—

different ways in which the atoms

that constitute the network of the

sun are organized in the solid state. And the example of carbon and

diamond is perhaps the best known

to you,

and visually it's tremendous. It's not

very easy to see; I mean, I've never seen a

diamond up close in a shop window.

But the merit and transparency of the

diamond has nothing to do with

what carbon is. Graphite, which is carbon, is what

pencils are made of, is

black and practically opaque. This, or at

least very little shine in

comparison without it, and well, this is

due precisely to how the

carbon is arranged in each of them. In

graphite, it forms a network of this style with

an interconnected organization.

This gives the

diamond characteristics that make it so

transparent, for example, and give it that

shine in the light. Graphite carbon,

however, forms sheets of sheets where

the carbon is organized in hexagons, and

these sheets, in turn,

require little force to slide

over one another, and that is what allows us,

for example, to use a

pencil or charcoal when

But they are not the

only ones found in solids; there are

others also known

to you, so without thinking too much,

but oxygen has two,

which are precisely diatomic oxygen,

which is the oxygen we breathe,

and this

molecule here, or three, which is

ozone. The ozone molecule is the one

that in our section of the sky

has a coefficient. Ozone,

in turn, is something that

photocopiers give off—that smell. What do you smell

in photocopiers? Is it an

the mole minister, one thing: no, because an

isotope would be, let's say, an isotope of

oxygen would be oxygen formed with

oxygen atoms that have a greater number

of neutrons.

Here we're not focusing on that, because

the same oxygen atom with a

certain number of protons and

neutrons can form

atomic or triatomic molecules called ozone.

And well, then also in metals there are

different ones, for example, there's

the case of tin, but it happens with

several metals, with iron too, that

have different solid phases, and there are

different ones because they are called

alpha, beta, gamma, and so on. And it also

has to do with the organization of the

atoms in the lattice of the solid, and each

of them has different properties.

This is regarding

the properties of the metal, I mean.

Let's talk then about what a compound is,

and we'll wrap up with this part. A

compound, then, is a substance that

is formed by the chemical union of two

or more elements, and again, in

fixed and defined proportions.

When we say "united" in chemistry, we are

talking about a chemical bond. of some kind,

kind,

which we'll see later, all the types of

bonds that exist, we'll see them during

a course, but then there's a

chemical union of atoms of

elements, and the proportions are

fixed, they're unique. Take

sugar, for example. Sugar has a

certain number of atoms of each element,

and if I change them, I'm changing the

formula, I'm changing the composition, and

therefore I'm talking about a

And

if it's a substance, we

separate the instances into

elements, which are the simplest substances

that exist, and compounds, which

So, precisely, a

compound is formed by

elements, meaning we couldn't break it down

into its elements by

chemical methods, for example, by a

chemical reaction.

But at the same time, a compound doesn't

necessarily have to have

similar characteristics to the

elements that form it. It's not like a

mixture, where if I mix two components,

well, the mixture has

characteristics of air. Here, the

compound is something totally

different with a

different behavior. If we can imagine

the water molecule, for example, which is

n't something that always comes to mind, and

well, in water, the water we drink, the

water we know, it doesn't have a

Similar behavior to that of

hydrogen and oxygen gases separately, and

yet they are the elements that form it,

but this is basically a very

important difference with what is a mixture.

So, we are going to

refer to molecules, which will be of

elements, as we saw that there are elements,

molecular forms, and atomic or

compound forms, and we are also going to refer

to ions, which can be cations or anions.

These ions are the species that are

charged, that somehow lost

and gained electrons, and that makes them have

a charge. If the charge is positive, we

have called them ions, and if the

charge is negative, we will call them anions.

As a result of a chemical reaction,

not a chemical change in a

molecule, ions can be formed, for example.

example.

So, those are the things, the terms

that you have to get

used to and start getting used to.

Now, we are going

to look at some nomenclature.

We are going to see how compounds are

formulated and how they are named. Yes,

in principle, we will see how to write the

formulas, which is a little simpler than naming them.

naming them.

So, I'll tell you that there are two types of

formulas that we are going to

refer to. This is what we call the

molecular formula or real formula, and

another is what is called the empirical formula

or empirical formula. The

difference between them is that the

molecular or real formula indicates

the composition of the compound, that is, what

elements form it, and the proportion

in which they are found. It

also indicates the molecular weight, in the

case of a molecule, in the sense

that it says how many atoms of each element

constitute it, not only the

proportion but also how many atoms. For

example, this is the case of

hydrogen peroxide. In hydrogen peroxide,

there are two hydrogen atoms and two

oxygen atoms. This is its molecular formula.

If I write the empirical formula or the

simplest formula, what is the difference? Well, in the simplest formula,

Well, in the simplest formula, the total number of atoms doesn't have to be given,

the total number of atoms doesn't have to be given, only the proportion in which

only the proportion in which the constituents are found. So,

the constituents are found. So, for hydrogen peroxide, the empirical formula (

for hydrogen peroxide, the empirical formula (

H) – one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom – doesn't mean that this is the

doesn't mean that this is the compound because we know that the

compound because we know that the compound is this other one that has two oxygen

compound is this other one that has two oxygen atoms. But this is the

atoms. But this is the empirical formula because, for example, it can happen

empirical formula because, for example, it can happen that... Based on certain tests

that... Based on certain tests one conducts to determine the

one conducts to determine the composition of a substance, one might

composition of a substance, one might conclude that the ratio between the

conclude that the ratio between the two atoms is one to one. However,

two atoms is one to one. However, other studies are needed to

other studies are needed to gather more information and confirm its

gather more information and confirm its form.

There are cases where they differ, such as in hydrogen peroxide

in hydrogen peroxide or, in this case,

or, in this case, nitrogen oxide. The

nitrogen oxide. The real formula is distinguished from the empirical formula, and

real formula is distinguished from the empirical formula, and sometimes they coincide. This is because in

sometimes they coincide. This is because in some substances, where there is

some substances, where there is an atom, a number of atoms—or rather,

an atom, a number of atoms—or rather, a type of atom—that has a

a type of atom—that has a coefficient of 1, the simplest formula will

coefficient of 1, the simplest formula will always be written with the

always be written with the lowest coefficient, meaning

lowest coefficient, meaning whole numbers, which is 1. Therefore,

whole numbers, which is 1. Therefore, in formulas of this type, the

in formulas of this type, the empirical and molecular formulas will coincide

empirical and molecular formulas will coincide because we won't write fractions

because we won't write fractions here, like the atomized oxygen. So,

here, like the atomized oxygen. So, the case of water coincides with the case of nitrogen oxide.

the case of water coincides with the case of nitrogen oxide.

Later in the course, you will work extensively with the empirical or simplest formula.

extensively with the empirical or simplest formula. Now, since we are going to talk about

Now, since we are going to talk about a mixture, we will focus more on this.

a mixture, we will focus more on this. But what's happening is that there's

But what's happening is that there's one thing I want you to know about

one thing I want you to know about all these formulas I've

all these formulas I've written. I always write the

written. I always write the ion first, in the case of a compound, or the

ion first, in the case of a compound, or the most electronegative element, or rather, the

most electronegative element, or rather, the most electropositive element,

most electropositive element, and secondly,

and secondly, the most electronegative element

the most electronegative element of those that make up the compound. For example,

of those that make up the compound. For example, in the case of

in the case of hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen is the least

hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen is the least electronegative and oxygen the most

electronegative and oxygen the most electronegative. It's written last. You

don't see this, for example, in a typical compound that I'm sure everyone knows,

compound that I'm sure everyone knows, which is sodium chloride.

which is sodium chloride.

I say chloride first and then sodium, but the formula isn't sodium chloride.

Here in this case, we're talking about two ions with more or less one charge. Let me

two ions with more or less one charge. Let me give you another example: another ion that I

give you another example: another ion that I know isn't monatomic like sodium;

know isn't monatomic like sodium; in fact, it has several atoms, which is

in fact, it has several atoms, which is ammonium.

ammonium. The formula is written the same way. Or, sorry,

The formula is written the same way. Or, sorry, we have another chloride here, which is

we have another chloride here, which is sulfur chloride. In this case, we're not

sulfur chloride. In this case, we're not talking about a cation or a union, but

talking about a cation or a union, but about two nonmetals where the least

about two nonmetals where the least electronegative, which is the Sulfur is

electronegative, which is the Sulfur is written first, and chlorine,

written first, and chlorine, and the same happens if we have

and the same happens if we have more complicated hyphens in their structure, like

more complicated hyphens in their structure, like sulfate,

sulfate, sodium sulfate, sodium sulfide. You

sodium sulfate, sodium sulfide. You see, they both have sulfur,

see, they both have sulfur, but they form different entities with

but they form different entities with different names. Another thing you have to keep in

different names. Another thing you have to keep in mind, or that you'll

mind, or that you'll see in the formulas, is this other thing

see in the formulas, is this other thing written here in green. Well, this

written here in green. Well, this is the formula for a salt, which is

is the formula for a salt, which is copper sulfate, yes, but it's also

copper sulfate, yes, but it's also represented with 1.5 water molecules. What does

represented with 1.5 water molecules. What does this mean? These are what are called

this mean? These are what are called hydrates. That is, in this case, it's a

hydrates. That is, in this case, it's a solid in which, in addition

solid in which, in addition to having sulfates (copper regions),

to having sulfates (copper regions), there are five

there are five water molecules for each one in the crystal lattice. That's

water molecules for each one in the crystal lattice. That's another thing that's also

another thing that's also represented in the formulas of

represented in the formulas of compounds.

So, back to discrete molecules. To

back to discrete molecules. To write discrete molecules in the

write discrete molecules in the formula, the molecular or real formula is always used

formula, the molecular or real formula is always used

because we can write it [Music].

[Music]. When we write polymers, there can be

When we write polymers, there can be differences because what would be the

differences because what would be the formula, for example, coincides, sorry, in

formula, for example, coincides, sorry, in the molecules. They coincide,

the molecules. They coincide, in these examples, with the minimum, not with

in these examples, with the minimum, not with The simplest formula,

The simplest formula, as I mentioned, isn't always the case.

as I mentioned, isn't always the case. Polymers, for example, can have

Polymers, for example, can have situations where the

situations where the empirical or simplest formula is one thing, but

empirical or simplest formula is one thing, but

in reality, the substance is something else. This happens with phosphorus oxide,

with phosphorus oxide,

which has this formula, but in reality, it's known to have a structure like this:

in reality, it's known to have a structure like this: four

four phosphorus atoms surrounded by ten oxygen atoms, forming this

phosphorus atoms surrounded by ten oxygen atoms, forming this structure shown here. So,

structure shown here. So, the actual entity doesn't always follow

the actual entity doesn't always follow a specific

a specific formula; it can be something else. The same applies

formula; it can be something else. The same applies to polymers.

to polymers. Something similar happens with

Something similar happens with sulfur, which, as I said, forms molecules.

sulfur, which, as I said, forms molecules. Sulfur forms

Sulfur forms different types of molecules. Here, the one with

different types of molecules. Here, the one with

seven atoms is drawn, but it also exists with six or eight. When you write

six or eight. When you write sulfur as an element, you end up

sulfur as an element, you end up writing "

writing " nothing." It doesn't necessarily indicate

nothing." It doesn't necessarily indicate which molecule you're referring to,

which molecule you're referring to, depending on the conditions.

For example, in the formula for a bond, we write "S" when it forms a bond.

we write "S" when it forms a bond. Writing a bond in a reaction will depend on the

Writing a bond in a reaction will depend on the specific conditions

and the purpose of the bond. Empirical formulas are used to name

Empirical formulas are used to name ionic substances,

ionic substances, ionic compounds that are organized in infinite lattices. A

ionic compounds that are organized in infinite lattices. A

typical example is sodium chloride. What is a sodium chloride lattice? Well,

a sodium chloride lattice? Well, the positive sodium ions (in

the positive sodium ions (in this case, green) and the negative chloride ions

this case, green) and the negative chloride ions alternate, one with the other,

alternate, one with the other, positive with negative, in a lattice

positive with negative, in a lattice that, in all three directions, is an

that, in all three directions, is an infinite lattice. So why do I use what I

infinite lattice. So why do I use what I call the empirical formula? Well,

call the empirical formula? Well, because I don't write "infinite sodium" or "

because I don't write "infinite sodium" or " infinite chloride."

infinite chloride." And this, I repeat, is what

And this, I repeat, is what distinguishes it from

distinguishes it from discrete molecules. Because if I could

discrete molecules. Because if I could shrink down and stand here and

shrink down and stand here and look around, I wouldn't distinguish pairs

look around, I wouldn't distinguish pairs of sodium and chloride ions,

of sodium and chloride ions, one different from the other; they are all

one different from the other; they are all equivalent to each other. That's why it's an

equivalent to each other. That's why it's an infinite lattice, organized regularly with

infinite lattice, organized regularly with the lines connecting them. So,

the lines connecting them. So, in these cases, for

in these cases, for ionic compounds, we use

ionic compounds, we use their formulas. And we'll

see, then, how the compounds are named, how we write the

the compounds are named, how we write the names, and how we read the names.

names, and how we read the names. These formulas, then,

These formulas, then, contrary to the

contrary to the reversed formula, are how we have to

reversed formula, are how we have to name them. That is, if I write e-cl

name them. That is, if I write e-cl referring to the salt sodium chloride, I

referring to the salt sodium chloride, I name it in reverse: first, I

name it in reverse: first, I name the ion chloride, and then I name

name the ion chloride, and then I name the cation sol. And if they were nonmetals, we would

the cation sol. And if they were nonmetals, we would first name the element with the

first name the element with the most negative electron, and then the one with the fewest

most negative electron, and then the one with the fewest negative electrons.

negative electrons. Now, there are rules for naming,

Now, there are rules for naming, precisely so that

precisely so that people don't just name things however they want, so that everyone doesn't name

people don't just name things however they want, so that everyone doesn't name

the different compounds however they please. So, this is something that was used at one time

something that was used at one time in familiar

in familiar or common names; some of them are still used

or common names; some of them are still used today for well-

today for well- known substances, such as

known substances, such as water and ammonia. These are

water and ammonia. These are common names that are accepted. But

common names that are accepted. But at one time, let's say to talk about

at one time, let's say to talk about this compound, which is

this compound, which is iron chloride, we would have said

iron chloride, we would have said ferric chloride. That nomenclature is

ferric chloride. That nomenclature is discouraged. Now, we try

discouraged. Now, we try to use systematic nomenclature, which

to use systematic nomenclature, which is the one given by the IUPAC, which has

is the one given by the IUPAC, which has certain Rules that we're going to see now are what

certain Rules that we're going to see now are what prevent confusion

prevent confusion when speaking, writing, and reading chemistry, and allow us

when speaking, writing, and reading chemistry, and allow us all to communicate in the same

all to communicate in the same language. There's

language. There's also

also Stock nomenclature, which indicates the

Stock nomenclature, which indicates the oxidation state of the metal in

oxidation state of the metal in parentheses.

parentheses. So, to refer to this

So, to refer to this compound, we would call it

compound, we would call it iron(III) chloride because the oxidation state of iron here is

iron(III) chloride because the oxidation state of iron here is 3. There's also

3. There's also iron(II) chloride,

iron(II) chloride, and this same compound, using Stock

and this same compound, using Stock nomenclature, would be

nomenclature, would be called iron(III) chloride.

called iron(III) chloride. That's the one we're

That's the one we're going to learn to use. It doesn't mean

going to learn to use. It doesn't mean that using it is wrong, but we're going

that using it is wrong, but we're going to learn more about it, since it's the one we

to learn more about it, since it's the one we use most often. Some substances

use most often. Some substances still use common names, which

still use common names, which are accepted by Stock nomenclature. So,

are accepted by Stock nomenclature. So, basically, we're going to see the

basically, we're going to see the nomenclature of binary and non-binary compounds. Binary compounds have

nomenclature of binary and non-binary compounds. Binary compounds have two elements, and non-

two elements, and non- binary compounds have three or more elements,

binary compounds have three or more elements, which is a bit more complicated when there are

which is a bit more complicated when there are more elements.

So, things we need to know before we start

things we need to know before we start naming:

naming: we're going to use prefixes and suffixes.

we're going to use prefixes and suffixes. For example, use prefixes that

For example, use prefixes that indicate the proportion of elements

indicate the proportion of elements between them. An example of

between them. An example of iron chloride is iron(III). Well, that trick I

iron chloride is iron(III). Well, that trick I added to the word chloride is

added to the word chloride is a multiplying prefix. I

a multiplying prefix. I mean, I'm going to use these terms, these

mean, I'm going to use these terms, these prefixes, to indicate how many atoms of

prefixes, to indicate how many atoms of an element there are in a molecule. For

an element there are in a molecule. For example, iron(III) chloride,

example, iron(III) chloride, tetra if there are 4, 3 if there are 5, and so

tetra if there are 4, 3 if there are 5, and so on.

on. Mono when there is only one. Often, the

Mono when there is only one. Often, the mono is omitted from the names.

mono is omitted from the names. [Music]

[Music] When it's a student of the comic,

When it's a student of the comic, sometimes it's not written

sometimes it's not written

when there's no room for confusion.

So here, for example, all these nitrogen oxides, I could

nitrogen oxides, I could name them using the YouTube nomenclature

name them using the YouTube nomenclature without having much of an idea of what

without having much of an idea of what oxidation state nitrogen has in each

oxidation state nitrogen has in each case or anything. I mean, just knowing

case or anything. I mean, just knowing that this is 1, 18, or 24, I can name

that this is 1, 18, or 24, I can name these directly by oxidation state and do

these directly by oxidation state and do the calculation. I mean, I can simply

the calculation. I mean, I can simply read here "oxide" because there are 5

read here "oxide" because there are 5 nitrogen atoms,

nitrogen atoms, following the Impact nomenclature, and that's it. I do

following the Impact nomenclature, and that's it. I do n't have to think

n't have to think much more. It wasn't there before, and well,

much more. It wasn't there before, and well, the idea is precisely to make it easier and also for us

the idea is precisely to make it easier and also for us all to be consistent and

all to be consistent and call them the same thing.

how we do it when there are more than 10 to start going. There are more. There aren't any more

to start going. There are more. There aren't any more prefixes. I didn't put them because it wasn't

prefixes. I didn't put them because it wasn't necessary to fill the sheet, but there is

necessary to fill the sheet, but there is one from each cellar, and so on, 11-12.

one from each cellar, and so on, 11-12.

Well, then there are other

there are other terms that are used according to the

terms that are used according to the oxidation state because sometimes we have to

oxidation state because sometimes we have to mention the oxidation state of

mention the oxidation state of one of the elements. More

one of the elements. More than mentioning this oxidation, we

than mentioning this oxidation, we mention that the oxidation state

mention that the oxidation state constitutes, for example, a hyphen.

constitutes, for example, a hyphen. So this happens for typical

So this happens for typical anions. There are different anions that will be

anions. There are different anions that will be formed according to the

formed according to the oxidation state of the element that

oxidation state of the element that constitutes them. So, non-atomic anions have

constitutes them. So, non-atomic anions have

two suffixes added to the end of the element's name to indicate

of the element's name to indicate that they are anions. For example,

that they are anions. For example, chloride, for pure anions, or the

chloride, for pure anions, or the suffix -ide, as in oxide, are

suffix -ide, as in oxide, are indicators that these elements have

indicators that these elements have become bonds. That is, chlorine has

become bonds. That is, chlorine has become a bond, it's called

become a bond, it's called chloride,

and oxygen, if it becomes an anion, it's called an oxide. Yes.

called an oxide. Yes. For polyatomic planes, or options

For polyatomic planes, or options that have oxygen in their structure, it's

that have oxygen in their structure, it's no longer like a single

no longer like a single element, but rather

element, but rather several elements that form these planes, whether they are

several elements that form these planes, whether they are their offspring, for example, all of this

because I say that I'm referring to the oxidation state. Well, because

oxidation state. Well, because the element, depending on its

the element, depending on its oxidation state, will give you a name,

oxidation state, will give you a name, in this case, nitrogen will be

in this case, nitrogen will be called nitrate and nitrite.

And sometimes, to distinguish between them, we find

distinguish between them, we find many similar ones, so

many similar ones, so we have to use these prefixes,

we have to use these prefixes, which

which are added to the names in addition

are added to the names in addition to the suffixes. Now, let's look at some

to the suffixes. Now, let's look at some examples so that it doesn't overwhelm us. So,

examples so that it doesn't overwhelm us. So,

names of common monatomic ions, what I was saying, those that

end in -ide, the halogens,

halogens, basically these are... If all the

basically these are... If all the halogens, for example, whose

halogens, for example, whose name isn't fluorine,

name isn't fluorine, are called chlorides, chlorine chloride,

are called chlorides, chlorine chloride, bromine bromide, we

bromine bromide, we have hydrogen hydride, which is

have hydrogen hydride, which is hydrogen with an anion, and some

hydrogen with an anion, and some that are non-metals, also a little

that are non-metals, also a little different, sulfide, phosphorus nitride,

different, sulfide, phosphorus nitride, which may not be so familiar, and the

which may not be so familiar, and the exception is oxide, well, there are

exception is oxide, well, there are the two endings -o-

the two endings -o- and we have this,

and we have this, but the list isn't infinite,

but the list isn't infinite, basically these are, and there are some more that you

basically these are, and there are some more that you have to learn. Yes, you're

have to learn. Yes, you're so thoughtful that you ask, you have to

so thoughtful that you ask, you have to know them, you have to learn them today,

know them, you have to learn them today, but you will learn them

but you will learn them throughout the classes, and what you have to

throughout the classes, and what you have to do to learn this is practice

do to learn this is practice and do exercises and exercises and

and do exercises and exercises and exercises of nomenclature and other

exercises of nomenclature and other types, and they will end up sticking in your

types, and they will end up sticking in your head. What you have to do is

head. What you have to do is pay attention when writing a

pay attention when writing a formula, what is this called, and so on, and it will stick.

formula, what is this called, and so on, and it will stick.

Some common polyatomic compounds, which are also, let's say,

also, let's say, relatively small, which also

relatively small, which also end in

end in a globular shape, we have hydroxide, for

a globular shape, we have hydroxide, for example, the Peroxide has that

example, the Peroxide has that ending, and then there are others that

ending, and then there are others that have other names, they are the

have other names, they are the common names, like cyanide, well, they

common names, like cyanide, well, they also end in -1 or some complex hyphens

also end in -1 or some complex hyphens because later on you are going to

because later on you are going to work with them. And here

work with them. And here we have

we have the users, I was telling you,

the users, I was telling you, elements that have oxygen, which already

elements that have oxygen, which already have the ending that is used, which

have the ending that is used, which is -ito. If,

is -ito. If, for example, we have the first ones on the

for example, we have the first ones on the list, we have sulfate and sulfite here.

list, we have sulfate and sulfite here. What is the difference between them?

What is the difference between them? This is the formula,

This is the formula, and looking at a formula, you can see that they have

and looking at a formula, you can see that they have sulfur, they have the

sulfur, they have the same negative charge -2, but there are

same negative charge -2, but there are different numbers of oxygen atoms

different numbers of oxygen atoms here, 4 and 3. What does this

here, 4 and 3. What does this really mean? If I were to look at the

really mean? If I were to look at the oxidation numbers of the elements, I have a

oxidation numbers of the elements, I have a different oxidation number in this

different oxidation number in this sulfur than in this other one. That's why, to

sulfur than in this other one. That's why, to have the same charge, I have a different

have the same charge, I have a different number of oxygen atoms. The one with

number of oxygen atoms. The one with more I call apto, and the one with

more I call apto, and the one with less I call hito. The same happens with

less I call hito. The same happens with nitrate and nitrite. The one with more

nitrate and nitrite. The one with more oxygen is apto, and the one with less is

oxygen is apto, and the one with less is hito. Yes.

[Music] There were some cases that I told you about.

There were some cases that I told you about. Sometimes you need to add prefixes, like "

Sometimes you need to add prefixes, like " dog" and "hiccup." When that happens, well,

dog" and "hiccup." When that happens, well, when I suddenly have more than two or more

when I suddenly have more than two or more hyphens to distinguish with the same

hyphens to distinguish with the same elements—in sulfur there are two, in

elements—in sulfur there are two, in micronitrates there are two—but when it comes

micronitrates there are two—but when it comes to halogens, in this case with

to halogens, in this case with chlorine, forming options,

chlorine, forming options, we're going to have four species because

we're going to have four species because chlorine has several

chlorine has several oxidation states and therefore forms four

oxidation states and therefore forms four different options: this one

different options: this one with four oxygen atoms,

with four oxygen atoms, then 3, 2, and 1. They all maintain the same

then 3, 2, and 1. They all maintain the same charge but have different

charge but have different oxygen atoms. That's not what they're called. Well,

oxygen atoms. That's not what they're called. Well, besides chlorate and chlorine, which would be

besides chlorate and chlorine, which would be analogous to what we see here,

analogous to what we see here, we have to add two names. How do we do it?

we have to add two names. How do we do it? How do we transform the names

How do we transform the names to have four ions? Well, to chlorate, the one that

to have four ions? Well, to chlorate, the one that ended in -act, we add the

ended in -act, we add the prefix -hypo, meaning

prefix -hypo, meaning above or below. So,

above or below. So, chlorate, which had three atoms,

chlorate, which had three atoms, perchlorate has four.

And on the other hand, to the one that ended in -itho, for chlorine, I add the prefix -hypo,

for chlorine, I add the prefix -hypo, meaning below.

meaning below. So, the one with only one

So, the one with only one oxygen atom ends up Calling it hypochlorite

sounds like a tongue twister, it's not that serious, you'll learn it. You'll see that if there

that if there aren't that many cases, they call it that, and if it's

aren't that many cases, they call it that, and if it's repetitive, it's always the same, always the same. Yes, let's see, I don't know

repetitive, it's always the same, always the same. Yes, let's see, I don't know

who's first, Esteban Efe.

A question: if we don't know if, for example, chlorate is

for example, chlorate is chlorine 3- and not

chlorine 3- and not 2-, as a difference in position, you don't

2-, as a difference in position, you don't

in a way, let's say if you see a

if you see a list of 4, it will be

list of 4, it will be ordered if the one with more oxygen

ordered if the one with more oxygen is the one with less, and so on with the names. That's how

is the one with less, and so on with the names. That's how we know,

we know, this is always the same. That is, if tomorrow I

this is always the same. That is, if tomorrow I write to you, I change the chlorine to

write to you, I change the chlorine to bromine, there I put the names with bromine,

bromine, there I put the names with bromine, no, that is, it's not that one has to

no, that is, it's not that one has to distinguish, it's the one with less oxygen,

distinguish, it's the one with less oxygen, that's always the hypo, and the one

that's always the hypo, and the one with more is the hypo,

with more is the hypo, in this order for the names, that's what

in this order for the names, that's what I mean. Thanks, Rafa, you're welcome. Let's see,

I mean. Thanks, Rafa, you're welcome. Let's see,

here I know the prefix, active and without creating, it has sulfur. The "uncle"

active and without creating, it has sulfur. The "uncle" is the profile, as sulfur indicates.

is the profile, as sulfur indicates. So, for example, this John, that It was

So, for example, this John, that It was cyanide, sorry, yes, angiotensin,

cyanide, sorry, yes, angiotensin, sorry, it's born with oxygen and when it

sorry, it's born with oxygen and when it requires it, it doesn't change, it suffers, it's called ocean,

and now I have a question from someone named p and 77 music,

named p and 77 music, and

I wanted to ask you a question, more than anything, for example, just to give you an example,

anything, for example, just to give you an example, carbonate, for example, we already

carbonate, for example, we already know why they would make the table I

know why they would make the table I want, 32 - if I see CO2

want, 32 - if I see CO2 2 - I already know that it would be with the ending -ite,

2 - I already know that it would be with the ending -ite, but to know perfectly well if what

but to know perfectly well if what happens is that there isn't one,

happens is that there isn't one, but why don't they all exist, you understand,

but why don't they all exist, you understand, if even your reasoning isn't

if even your reasoning isn't correct, but no, no, not for all the

correct, but no, no, not for all the elements, Joshua Nyon, it's like that, but if it

elements, Joshua Nyon, it's like that, but if it existed, the name would be, so

existed, the name would be, so thank you, well,

thank you, well,

then these again, I have to learn them, if we have to learn them,

learn them, if we have to learn them, how do

how do you have to learn them, however you think is best, your method for

you have to learn them, however you think is best, your method for learning names, for I think the

learning names, for I think the best thing is to do everything you can and

best thing is to do everything you can and eventually I will come in if

eventually I will come in if you pay attention, obviously

the cations are named more easily because except for all these

except for all these polyatomic cations, which are these that are Here they are

polyatomic cations, which are these that are Here they are called ammonium font, I, the sound is,

called ammonium font, I, the sound is,

these have a chair, what happens, do you have another question, maybe from the

another question, maybe from the Kabylie, I wanted to finish the idea, thank you, I was

Kabylie, I wanted to finish the idea, thank you, I was n't going to tell you, I mean, I'm already here,

n't going to tell you, I mean, I'm already here, the word associate, these

the word associate, these polyatomic cations, which are these with their

polyatomic cations, which are these with their own name, let's say, and in the rest they are

own name, let's say, and in the rest they are named like the name of the element,

named like the name of the element, Sofia, tell me, I did

n't want to ask if they are listening to me,

bicarbonate, exactly, it's the same, but in reality, according to the IUPAC, we should

reality, according to the IUPAC, we should call it hydrogen carbonate, which we

call it hydrogen carbonate, which we call bicarbonate,

well, so the cations, I call them the cations that simplify life

the cations that simplify life because when they want to refer to a

because when they want to refer to a metal they simply say cation x with the

metal they simply say cation x with the name of the metal, for example, cobalt 2 with a

name of the metal, for example, cobalt 2 with a high time 3 when I have two

high time 3 when I have two different oxidation states, one over

different oxidation states, one over two, the silver, in

two, the silver, in reality I can write the

reality I can write the oxidation number, but in reality silver is

oxidation number, but in reality silver is the only one that has it, so it could be

the only one that has it, so it could be omitted, you will also see names like

omitted, you will also see names like this one here, which is q, but so

this one here, which is q, but so Kubrick or not, public, those are

Kubrick or not, public, those are the common names, the

the common names, the previous nomenclature is the one we made, that We don't

previous nomenclature is the one we made, that We don't always use it; you'll find some

always use it; you'll find some teacher who calls it Kubrick chloride

teacher who calls it Kubrick chloride or, for example, copper chloride 2.

or, for example, copper chloride 2. Well, I don't mean an old teacher,

then, as we said, how do we name them separately?

name them separately? Now, as I say, the name of

Now, as I say, the name of everything is precisely... well, I have to

everything is precisely... well, I have to see how many of a certain element I

see how many of a certain element I have in the molecule and how many of the

have in the molecule and how many of the cations, and I add the

cations, and I add the necessary prefixes. So, the same

necessary prefixes. So, the same example from today, in this case, it's Dimitrov oxide,

example from today, in this case, it's Dimitrov oxide, because I have five oxygens, two

because I have five oxygens, two nitrogens,

nitrogens, this is chlorine oxide. In this case, they are

this is chlorine oxide. In this case, they are all metals, so I name them after the

all metals, so I name them after the least electronegative element.

least electronegative element.

If it were a metal with one metal, for example, a metallic oxide, I

could also use the nomenclature. I don't use the oxidation state

don't use the oxidation state indicated in this oxidation. So,

indicated in this oxidation. So, there's a compound, for example, this, every two atoms, that

there's a compound, for example, this, every two atoms, that is, two potassium atoms with one oxygen atom.

is, two potassium atoms with one oxygen atom. I could call this

I could call this potassium oxide or potassium chloride. What

potassium oxide or potassium chloride. What happens in this case is the only one there because

happens in this case is the only one there because potassium atoms are the most common formations. 1. So,

potassium atoms are the most common formations. 1. So, I can actually omit this

I can actually omit this and say potassium oxide, and it's understood the

and say potassium oxide, and it's understood the same way; it doesn't lead to confusion.

same way; it doesn't lead to confusion. Saying potassium oxide one

Saying potassium oxide one is also redundant; I can omit the one

is also redundant; I can omit the one because this is the only possible oxidation state.

because this is the only possible oxidation state.

Then you might find some old books with this nomenclature, like they

some old books with this nomenclature, like they call it "Emmy potassium oxide," "This is ski," "

call it "Emmy potassium oxide," "This is ski," " iron oxide." In the case of

iron oxide." In the case of iron oxide, all these things are

iron oxide, all these things are no longer used, but I'm showing them to you

no longer used, but I'm showing them to you because you might find them

because you might find them written somewhere. And tell me,

written somewhere. And tell me,

really wanted to ask you, when you said potassium oxide, is it possible to

you said potassium oxide, is it possible to specify it? Is it necessary? If so, why not? In

specify it? Is it necessary? If so, why not? In fact, it's fine to just

fact, it's fine to just say potassium oxide because

say potassium oxide because potassium only forms +1 cations,

potassium only forms +1 cations, so there's only one possible potassium oxide.

so there's only one possible potassium oxide.

The distinction has to be made when there are other types, like in the case of iron.

there are other types, like in the case of iron. At the beginning, it can have iron 2 or

At the beginning, it can have iron 2 or iron 3. So, in that case, I

iron 3. So, in that case, I have to indicate which one it is.

have to indicate which one it is.

This mica, the one with the hand raised, is the same capacity.

I don't change the name.

Why can't it be Esteban? The import option

import option can be, but it's not necessary.

Yes, it could also be monoxide. One could use the prefix on

One could use the prefix on each of the elements,

each of the elements, but they are omitted in cases

but they are omitted in cases where there is no confusion.

Well, more complicated examples, like here we have

here we have aluminum chlorine. The "mono" is also in

aluminum chlorine. The "mono" is also in parentheses. It's not necessary to say "the tri"

parentheses. It's not necessary to say "the tri" because the "tri"

because the "tri" refers to the number.

refers to the number. The chlorite species. All of this that is

The chlorite species. All of this that is written in parentheses is that. Don't

written in parentheses is that. Don't forget. If I put here without

forget. If I put here without parentheses "aluminum chlorine oxygen 23," it

parentheses "aluminum chlorine oxygen 23," it seems as if I were saying that there are 23

seems as if I were saying that there are 23 atoms.

For example, in this other case, we have monohydrogen phosphate. What does

monohydrogen phosphate. What does all this refer to?

all this refer to? And why are there two? Remember, there

And why are there two? Remember, there are two ammonium phosphates.

are two ammonium phosphates. All of this "t" refers to this

All of this "t" refers to this hyphen, which is helium hydrogen phosphate.

hyphen, which is helium hydrogen phosphate. Monohydrogen phosphate. Why?

Monohydrogen phosphate. Why? Because we have

Because we have a hydrogen atom here.

And well, what is the example of the hydrated species that I showed you today?

hydrated species that I showed you today? Copper sulfate. At this point,

Copper sulfate. At this point, we have copper sulfate here. Again, the

we have copper sulfate here. Again, the wall in parentheses because it would be mono,

wall in parentheses because it would be mono, but it omits copper sulfate pentahydrate

but it omits copper sulfate pentahydrate as we normally call it,

as we normally call it, but the IUPAC, of course, is now

but the IUPAC, of course, is now recommending that it be written like this:

recommending that it be written like this: copper sulfate water 15, as if saying one of

copper sulfate water 15, as if saying one of its copper five water photos. The

its copper five water photos. The reality is that we haven't gotten used to it

reality is that we haven't gotten used to it and we use this all the

and we use this all the time, but this would be the correct IUPAC name.

time, but this would be the correct IUPAC name.

Oh, sorry, I have a question before continuing, if we're already at the end. With

continuing, if we're already at the end. With apologies, hello.

apologies, hello. If the missing diamond, I'm asking because the

If the missing diamond, I'm asking because the day is in parentheses

day is in parentheses because it's not really. Again, it

because it's not really. Again, it can be omitted in the sense that

can be omitted in the sense that ammonium is also a hyphen,

ammonium is also a hyphen, a single ammonium ion exists, NH4 with a positive charge.

a single ammonium ion exists, NH4 with a positive charge.

If it were a metal, iron again, I would have to say how many irons

would have to say how many irons can come into play, iron 3, but

can come into play, iron 3, but in this case, it's the only one. If I put

in this case, it's the only one. If I put this ring that has a charge of -2 to

this ring that has a charge of -2 to put ammonium, I have to compensate with

put ammonium, I have to compensate with 2 ammonium, I have no other option.

And the last thing, and we're finished, is how in turn we even name the... there are no ions

turn we even name the... there are no ions with cations But what happens when

with cations But what happens when we name acids? When we name them,

we name acids? When we name them, the names change. So, if everything we saw

the names change. So, if everything we saw here—

here— the sulfate, well, all those elements

the sulfate, well, all those elements at the levels of the table—were

at the levels of the table—were combining with hydrogen and

combining with hydrogen and therefore forming acids, I know, if the formula were

therefore forming acids, I know, if the formula were hydrogen + 1, we

hydrogen + 1, we have to change the name. The

have to change the name. The nomenclature of acids is different from that

nomenclature of acids is different from that of salts.

of salts. How different it is is

How different it is is all summarized in these tables.

all summarized in these tables. Everything that ended in -1

to name the acid, the name is changed. The pure -1 is changed to -ic.

The pure -1 is changed to -ic. For example, anything that had chloride,

For example, anything that had chloride, if it forms an acid, then with

if it forms an acid, then with chloride, when it forms an acid, it becomes

chloride, when it forms an acid, it becomes hydrochloric acid, as

hydrochloric acid, as indicated here with the formula. And everything with

indicated here with the formula. And everything with sulfide becomes hydrogen sulfide.

sulfide becomes hydrogen sulfide. If it's pure water vapor,

what happens with us? The prefix...

The prefix... no, it doesn't change. The prefix doesn't

no, it doesn't change. The prefix doesn't matter, it stays the same. What

matter, it stays the same. What changes is the ending. So,

changes is the ending. So, everything that ended in -ate is

everything that ended in -ate is changed to -ic, and everything that... It

changed to -ic, and everything that... It ends in "hitos" and changes to "oso." You

ends in "hitos" and changes to "oso." You have to learn those three

have to learn those three things: pure, past, hydrochloric acid, and

things: pure, past, hydrochloric acid, and past "hitos." It

past "hitos." It seems like a game, but that's how it is. So,

seems like a game, but that's how it is. So, for example, an acid that has

for example, an acid that has the bond "para-chlorate," that is, when

the bond "para-chlorate," that is, when perchlorate forms an acid, it forms

perchlorate forms an acid, it forms perchloric acid. That is, I keep everything

perchloric acid. That is, I keep everything except the ending. I change "para-chlorate" to "

except the ending. I change "para-chlorate" to "

the chlorate, the same thing, forwards, nothing happens. At the end, I change "-ate" to "pico" again, just like it was with the logical part. And with the two that end in "hito-" or "a-torric acid," the hypochlorite becomes " has been clear" or "hypo-chlorite."

has been clear" or "hypo-chlorite." And here, I'm actually summarizing that in

And here, I'm actually summarizing that in this little drawing so that it says what needs to be

this little drawing so that it says what needs to be changed.

changed. Tell me, "t bond

today, exercise," I think this is what we do

in practice, or not in practical class, and you usually do it in the

class, and you usually do it in the self-assessment ones, and also the "us" ones, which

self-assessment ones, and also the "us" ones, which are like the additional ones. And also, you

are like the additional ones. And also, you grab any chemistry book,

grab any chemistry book,

which there are seven million of, that's why I'm telling you if... They start doing

start doing exercises, they get overwhelmed

exercises, they get overwhelmed with terminology,

with terminology, but well, it takes practice, that's for sure. And

but well, it takes practice, that's for sure. And Micaela,

Micaela, if I wanted to ask, those exercises

if I wanted to ask, those exercises were already on the page where we have

were already on the page where we have all the information, and the table

all the information, and the table for next week's practical. And Maite can

for next week's practical. And Maite can

correct me if I'm not mistaken, the exercises will be posted

mistaken, the exercises will be posted every Thursday for the

every Thursday for the following week, Wednesday,

following week, Wednesday, Wednesday, Wednesday, pokey. So,

Wednesday, Wednesday, pokey. So, starting tomorrow, you'll have the material

starting tomorrow, you'll have the material for next week. That

for next week. That is, each week we'll be posting them on

is, each week we'll be posting them on Wednesdays, and at the

Wednesdays, and at the end of each week,

end of each week, the solutions will be posted, with the

the solutions will be posted, with the answers from the superstitious ones.

answers from the superstitious ones. The idea is that, for example, when you

The idea is that, for example, when you go to the practicals, you already have

go to the practicals, you already have something prepared regarding the

something prepared regarding the application processes, because that makes

application processes, because that makes the class more dynamic. Otherwise, it's

the class more dynamic. Otherwise, it's basically one of us doing it

basically one of us doing it on the board and you

on the board and you looking there. So, take

looking there. So, take the little things...

the little things... I'm going to stop sharing because my

I'm going to stop sharing because my presentation is finished.

So I can see... I don't see some faces here, luckily. Thank you. And I see the list of

some faces here, luckily. Thank you. And I see the list of participants, and the one who's...

participants, and the one who's... Alexander, go ahead, I just

Alexander, go ahead, I just have to ask about that thing you mentioned regarding the

have to ask about that thing you mentioned regarding the book of books I recommend. If

book of books I recommend. If they're on the website, well, actually,

they're on the website, well, actually, you're going to have some material

you're going to have some material prepared by us to help you with

prepared by us to help you with the topics starting

the topics starting next week. To study this, I'd

next week. To study this, I'd say any general chemistry book. I

say any general chemistry book. I mentioned Brawn and Chance

mentioned Brawn and Chance because they're generally the ones

because they're generally the ones used at the Élysée Institute, but

used at the Élysée Institute, but any general chemistry book has

any general chemistry book has a section on nomenclature and

a section on nomenclature and formulations that will be useful. -

formulations that will be useful. -

There's a question about the practicals this week.

the practicals this week. Next week we'll see what we're going to do. We'll just do

Next week we'll see what we're going to do. We'll just do exercises,

exercises, which means we won't be

which means we won't be using the lab. You do

using the lab. You do n't have a

n't have a lab this semester because

lab this semester because now you're going to have to take

now you're going to have to take this course called Safety,

this course called Safety, Risk Prevention, etc., and only

Risk Prevention, etc., and only when you pass that subject can you move on

when you pass that subject can you move on to the labs. The first lab

to the labs. The first lab for you will be in General Chemistry

for you will be in General Chemistry 2, the Senate of Goods, Administration

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